The English word "the" is the definite article. It marks a noun as one particular thing that speaker and listener both know about: "a book" is any book, and "the book" is the one we mean. Albanian has this idea, but it has no separate word for it. It does what English does with "the" by adding a short ending to the end of the noun. The indefinite noun libër is "a book", and libri is "the book". The indefinite noun vajzë is "a girl", and vajza is "the girl". Nothing is placed before the noun.
The vocabulary list gives "the" as an article. The Albanian equivalent taught here is the set of article endings, headed by -i for masculine nouns and -a for feminine nouns, because these two are the commonest endings in the system and the ones a learner meets first. The full set for the singular and plural is:
- -i and -u are the masculine singular: libri "the book", djali "the boy", shoku "the friend". - -a and -ja are the feminine singular: vajza "the girl", shtëpia "the house", macja "the cat". - -t, -të and -ët are the plural, masculine and feminine alike: librat "the books", djemtë "the boys", shokët "the friends".
Its neighbours, which are easily confused with it, are:
- një (/ɲə/, "a, an, one") is the indefinite article, a separate word placed before the noun: një libër "a book". - ky (/ky/, "this", masculine) and kjo (/kjɔ/, "this", feminine) are separate words that point at a noun. After them the noun stays indefinite: ky libër "this book", kjo shtëpi "this house", but Ky është libri "This is the book". - i, e, të, së are the linking articles. They look like small versions of the endings, but they are separate words that join a noun to a genitive or an adjective: libri i djalit "the boy's book", shtëpia e vjetër "the old house". They are not the definite article, and a later lesson treats them in full. They appear in this lesson because the examples need them.
The first thing to learn is the position. The article is a suffix, and it is part of the word. It changes the ending of the noun and sometimes the noun itself: libër loses its ë in libri, and djalë loses its ë in djali.
The second thing is that the ending depends on the gender and the last sounds of the noun, and that the noun has two jobs in a sentence, as subject and as object. A subject takes one form, and a definite object takes a slightly different one:
- the book (subject): libri; the book (object): librin - the girl (subject): vajza; the girl (object): vajzën - the house (subject): shtëpia; the house (object): shtëpinë
The third thing is that Albanian does not always use the article where English does. After the preposition në "in, at" Albanian very often keeps the noun indefinite where English says "the": në shkollë "at school", në qytet "in town", në shtëpi "at home", në kuzhinë "in the kitchen".
Orthographic points: the letters of this lesson that English lacks are ë (a weak vowel), ç (like English "ch"), and the digraphs dh, gj, ll, nj, rr and sh. The letter q is not English "q": it is a palatal sound close to "ty". Every ë must be written, because ë often decides a word: libër, vajzë, nënë. The article suffixes are written together with the noun, never as a separate word.
FAQ: What does "the" mean in Albanian?
Q: What is "the" in Albanian? A: Albanian has no separate word for "the". It adds an ending to the noun: libër "a book", libri "the book"; vajzë "a girl", vajza "the girl".
Q: Which ending do I use? A: Masculine nouns usually take -i (libri, djali, mali), or -u after k and g (shoku, zogu). Feminine nouns take -a (vajza, shtëpia) or -ja (macja, dritarja, lulja). Plural nouns take -t, -të or -ët (librat, djemtë, shokët).
Q: How do I say "a" or "an"? A: With një before the noun: një libër "a book", një shtëpi "a house".
Q: Is the article the same as i and e? A: No. i and e are the linking articles, and they are separate words that join a noun to a genitive or an adjective: libri i djalit.
Key Takeaways
- Albanian has no word for "the": it adds an ending to the end of the noun: libër "a book", libri "the book". - Masculine singular: -i (or -u after k, g): libri, djali, shoku. Feminine singular: -a (or -ja): vajza, shtëpia, macja. - Plural: -t, -të or -ët: librat, djemtë, shokët. - A definite object has its own form: librin, vajzën, shtëpinë. - After në Albanian often keeps the noun indefinite where English says "the": në shkollë "at school".
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
-i is /i/ as in "machine", and -a is /a/ as in "father". Albanian vowels are pure, with no glide at the end as in English "see" or "go". The article endings are short and clear: libri /libɾi/, vajza /vajza/.
IPA in this lesson is a simple transcription of each word on its own, and stress is not marked. As a rule, the stress of a noun stays on the same syllable when the article is added, so the ending does not pull it: libër and libri are both stressed on the first syllable, and shtëpi and shtëpia are both stressed on the pi.
Sounds in this lesson that English lacks or treats differently:
- ë = /ə/, a weak vowel like the first sound of English "about": libër, vajzë, është /ɛʃtə/. At the end of a word it is light and unstressed. - e = /ɛ/ as in "bed", and o = /ɔ/ as in British "hot": ke /kɛ/, po /pɔ/. - y = /y/, as French "u" or German "ü": ky /ky/. - r is a single tap /ɾ/, and rr is a trill /r/: libri /libɾi/ but burri /buri/. The two are different sounds, and the spelling shows which. - ll = /ɫ/, a dark "l", and single l = /l/, a light "l": shkollë /ʃkɔɫə/ but lule /lulɛ/. - sh = /ʃ/ ("sh") and ç = /tʃ/ ("ch"): shtëpi /ʃtəpi/, çantë /tʃantə/. - c = /ts/ ("ts" in "cats"): macja /matsja/. - dh = /ð/, the "th" of English "the": dhe /ðɛ/ "and", madh /mað/. In Albanian it is a letter of its own. - gj = /ɟ/, a palatal sound like a soft "dy": gjatë /ɟatə/. q = /c/, a palatal sound like a soft "ty": qen /cɛn/, qytet /cytɛt/. - nj = /ɲ/, like "ni" in "onion": një /ɲə/, njerëz /ɲɛɾəz/. - j = /j/ as English "y": janë /janə/, jashtë /jaʃtə/. - h is pronounced in every position: hap /hap/, ftohtë /ftɔhtə/.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Examples 1.1–1.15 are pedagogical constructions built from verified vocabulary and patterns (Acceptabile). They are not quotations. In line a the article ending is shown as -the on the English word: libri is book-the. A genitive form is shown as boy-the's. The linking articles are glossed of before a genitive and (link) before an adjective. Line b uses these abbreviations: DEF (definite), INDEF (indefinite), M and F (masculine, feminine), SG and PL (singular, plural), NOM (subject form), ACC (object form), GEN (genitive-dative form), DEM (demonstrative), LINK (linking article), CL (clitic, a short object pronoun), PTCP (participle), Q (question particle), EXIST (existential "there is").
1.1a Ky this është is libri book-the
1.1b Ky /ky/ DEM.M.SG është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES libri /libɾi/ book.M.SG.DEF.NOM
1.2a Kjo this është is shtëpia house-the
1.2b Kjo /kjɔ/ DEM.F.SG është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES shtëpia /ʃtəpia/ house.F.SG.DEF.NOM
1.3a Ku where është is libri book-the
1.3b Ku /ku/ where është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES libri /libɾi/ book.M.SG.DEF.NOM
1.4a Vajza girl-the është is këtu here
1.4b Vajza /vajza/ girl.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES këtu /kətu/ here
1.5a A whether e it ke you-have librin book-the
1.5b A /a/ Q e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL ke /kɛ/ have.2SG.PRES librin /libɾin/ book.M.SG.DEF.ACC
1.6a Po yes e it kam I-have librin book-the në in çantë bag
1.6b Po /pɔ/ yes e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL kam /kam/ have.1SG.PRES librin /libɾin/ book.M.SG.DEF.ACC në /nə/ in çantë /tʃantə/ bag.F.SG.INDEF
1.7a Djali boy-the dhe and vajza girl-the janë are në in shkollë school
1.7b Djali /djali/ boy.M.SG.DEF.NOM dhe /ðɛ/ and vajza /vajza/ girl.F.SG.DEF.NOM janë /janə/ be.3PL.PRES në /nə/ in shkollë /ʃkɔɫə/ school.F.SG.INDEF
1.8a Macja cat-the fle sleeps në in shtëpi house por but qeni dog-the është is jashtë outside
1.8b Macja /matsja/ cat.F.SG.DEF.NOM fle /flɛ/ sleep.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in shtëpi /ʃtəpi/ house.F.SG.INDEF por /pɔɾ/ but qeni /cɛni/ dog.M.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES jashtë /jaʃtə/ outside
1.9a Dritarja window-the është is e (link) hapur open dhe and dera door-the është is e (link) mbyllur closed
1.9b Dritarja /dɾitarja/ window.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES e /ɛ/ LINK.F hapur /hapuɾ/ open.PTCP dhe /ðɛ/ and dera /dɛɾa/ door.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES e /ɛ/ LINK.F mbyllur /mbyɫuɾ/ close.PTCP
1.10a Nëna mother-the e of vajzës girl-the's gatuan cooks në in kuzhinë kitchen
1.10b Nëna /nəna/ mother.F.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ LINK.F vajzës /vajzəs/ girl.F.SG.DEF.GEN gatuan /ɡatuan/ cook.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in kuzhinë /kuʒinə/ kitchen.F.SG.INDEF
1.11a Libri book-the i of djalit boy-the's është is në in çantën bag-the e of mësuesit teacher-the's
1.11b Libri /libɾi/ book.M.SG.DEF.NOM i /i/ LINK.M djalit /djalit/ boy.M.SG.DEF.GEN është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in çantën /tʃantən/ bag.F.SG.DEF.ACC e /ɛ/ LINK.F mësuesit /məsuɛsit/ teacher.M.SG.DEF.GEN
1.12a Burri man-the dhe and gruaja woman-the janë are në in qytet town por but djemtë boys-the janë are në in fushë field
1.12b Burri /buri/ man.M.SG.DEF.NOM dhe /ðɛ/ and gruaja /ɡɾuaja/ woman.F.SG.DEF.NOM janë /janə/ be.3PL.PRES në /nə/ in qytet /cytɛt/ town.M.SG.INDEF por /pɔɾ/ but djemtë /djɛmtə/ boy.M.PL.DEF.NOM janë /janə/ be.3PL.PRES në /nə/ in fushë /fuʃə/ field.F.SG.INDEF
1.13a Uji water-the është is i (link) ftohtë cold por but dita day-the është is e (link) ngrohtë warm
1.13b Uji /uji/ water.M.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES i /i/ LINK.M ftohtë /ftɔhtə/ cold por /pɔɾ/ but dita /dita/ day.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES e /ɛ/ LINK.F ngrohtë /ŋɡɾɔhtə/ warm
1.14a Djali boy-the e it hap opens dritaren window-the dhe and vajza girl-the e it mbyll closes derën door-the
1.14b Djali /djali/ boy.M.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL hap /hap/ open.3SG.PRES dritaren /dɾitaɾɛn/ window.F.SG.DEF.ACC dhe /ðɛ/ and vajza /vajza/ girl.F.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL mbyll /mbyɫ/ close.3SG.PRES derën /dɛɾən/ door.F.SG.DEF.ACC
1.15a Tirana Tirana është is kryeqyteti capital-the i of Shqipërisë Albania-the's një a qytet city i (link) madh big
1.15b Tirana /tirana/ Tirana është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES kryeqyteti /kryɛcytɛti/ capital.M.SG.DEF.NOM i /i/ LINK.M Shqipërisë /ʃcipərisə/ Albania.F.SG.DEF.GEN një /ɲə/ a qytet /cytɛt/ city.M.SG.INDEF i /i/ LINK.M madh /mað/ big
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
1.1 Ky është libri. → "This is the book."
1.2 Kjo është shtëpia. → "This is the house."
1.3 Ku është libri? → "Where is the book?"
1.4 Vajza është këtu. → "The girl is here."
1.5 A e ke librin? → "Do you have the book?"
1.6 Po, e kam librin në çantë. → "Yes, I have the book in the bag."
1.7 Djali dhe vajza janë në shkollë. → "The boy and the girl are at school."
1.8 Macja fle në shtëpi, por qeni është jashtë. → "The cat is sleeping indoors, but the dog is outside."
1.9 Dritarja është e hapur dhe dera është e mbyllur. → "The window is open and the door is closed."
1.10 Nëna e vajzës gatuan në kuzhinë. → "The girl's mother is cooking in the kitchen."
1.11 Libri i djalit është në çantën e mësuesit. → "The boy's book is in the teacher's bag."
1.12 Burri dhe gruaja janë në qytet, por djemtë janë në fushë. → "The man and the woman are in town, but the boys are in the field."
1.13 Uji është i ftohtë, por dita është e ngrohtë. → "The water is cold, but the day is warm."
1.14 Djali e hap dritaren dhe vajza e mbyll derën. → "The boy opens the window and the girl closes the door."
1.15 Tirana është kryeqyteti i Shqipërisë, një qytet i madh. → "Tirana is the capital of Albania, a big city."
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
1.1 Ky është libri.
1.2 Kjo është shtëpia.
1.3 Ku është libri?
1.4 Vajza është këtu.
1.5 A e ke librin?
1.6 Po, e kam librin në çantë.
1.7 Djali dhe vajza janë në shkollë.
1.8 Macja fle në shtëpi, por qeni është jashtë.
1.9 Dritarja është e hapur dhe dera është e mbyllur.
1.10 Nëna e vajzës gatuan në kuzhinë.
1.11 Libri i djalit është në çantën e mësuesit.
1.12 Burri dhe gruaja janë në qytet, por djemtë janë në fushë.
1.13 Uji është i ftohtë, por dita është e ngrohtë.
1.14 Djali e hap dritaren dhe vajza e mbyll derën.
1.15 Tirana është kryeqyteti i Shqipërisë, një qytet i madh.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
These are the grammar rules for the article endings (-i, -a) in Albanian:
1. The article is a suffix. Albanian puts the definite article at the end of the noun, where English puts "the" before it. The indefinite form is the dictionary form. The definite form is made from it: libër → libri, vajzë → vajza, shtëpi → shtëpia. The English "a" is a separate word, një, placed before the noun: një libër, një vajzë.
2. Masculine singular: -i or -u. Most masculine nouns take -i: libër → libri (1.1, 1.3), djalë → djali (1.7), burrë → burri (1.12), qen → qeni (1.8), ujë → uji (1.13), mal → mali. A final ë is lost before the ending. Nouns that end in -k, -g or -h take -u: shok → shoku, zog → zogu (1.20). A noun ending in -ës or another consonant takes -i: mësues → mësuesi, qytet → qyteti.
3. Feminine singular: -a or -ja. A feminine noun ending in -ë drops it and takes -a: vajzë → vajza (1.4), nënë → nëna (1.10), shkollë → shkolla. A feminine noun ending in -i takes -a directly: shtëpi → shtëpia (1.2). A feminine noun ending in -e drops it and takes -ja: mace → macja (1.8), dritare → dritarja (1.9), lule → lulja. The noun grua "woman" takes -ja: gruaja (1.12). The noun derë "door" drops its ë and takes -a: dera (1.9).
4. The plural: -t, -të, -ët. The definite plural is made from the indefinite plural. Where the plural ends in an unstressed vowel the ending is usually -t: libra → librat, vajza → vajzat, shkolla → shkollat, mace → macet, lule → lulet (1.23, 1.24). Where the plural ends in -ë the ending is -ët: shokë → shokët (1.28). Where it ends in a consonant, or in a stressed vowel, the ending is -të: djem → djemtë (1.12), shtëpi → shtëpitë, gra → gratë. A few masculine nouns take -it: mësues → mësuesit. The plural of a noun is often irregular, so the indefinite plural must be learned with the noun: djalë has the plural djem "boys", and grua has gra "women". The same ending serves for subject and object in the plural.
5. The object form. A definite noun used as the object of a verb has its own singular ending. Masculine nouns take -in (or -un after k, g): libri → librin (1.5, 1.6), shoku → shokun. Feminine nouns take -n or -në: vajza → vajzën, shtëpia → shtëpinë, dritarja → dritaren (1.14), dera → derën (1.14), çanta → çantën (1.11), nëna → nënën (1.25), gruaja → gruan. The indefinite object is the same as the subject: Vajza lexon një libër "The girl reads a book".
6. The object clitic. With a definite object Albanian usually adds a short pronoun e "it, him, her" before the verb: e kam librin "I have the book" (1.6), e hap dritaren "he opens the window" (1.14). The clitic repeats the object, and it agrees with it. A later lesson treats it in full. In this lesson it is glossed 3SG.ACC.CL.
7. The genitive-dative form. To say "of the boy", "the boy's", Albanian uses a third form: djali → djalit, mësuesi → mësuesit (1.11), vajza → vajzës (1.10), shkolla → shkollës (1.27), shtëpia → shtëpisë (1.17), Shqipëria → Shqipërisë (1.15), zogu → zogut (1.20). The masculine ending is -it (or -ut), and the feminine ending is -s or -së. It is joined to the head noun by the linking article i or e, which agrees with the head noun: libri i djalit "the boy's book" (masculine head), nëna e vajzës "the girl's mother" (feminine head). When the noun is definite, the same form follows the prepositions para "before" and pas "behind" (1.17, 1.21).
8. Adjectives. The adjective follows the noun. After a definite noun it takes a linking article that agrees with the noun in gender: shtëpia e vjetër "the old house" (1.16). A predicate adjective takes i (masculine) or e (feminine): Uji është i ftohtë (1.13), Dera është e mbyllur (1.9). In the plural the link is të: Lulet janë të kuqe "The flowers are red" (1.23). After an indefinite object such as një oborr or lule the link is të: një oborr të vogël (1.17), lule të bukura (1.22).
9. Possessives. A possessive follows the definite noun: libri im "my book", shtëpia ime "my house", nëna ime "my mother", shoku im "my friend". The English "my" does not come first.
10. When Albanian keeps the noun indefinite. After në "in, at" the noun is often indefinite where English says "the" or nothing: në shkollë (1.7), në qytet (1.12), në shtëpi (1.8), në kuzhinë (1.10), në çantë (1.6). When the noun is specified more closely, it takes the article: në çantën e mësuesit "in the teacher's bag" (1.11).
Common Mistakes
- Putting the article first. English "the book" is not i libër or ky libër. Write libri. - Forgetting that the noun changes. Libër loses its ë in the definite form. Wrong: libëri. Right: libri. Wrong: djalëi. Right: djali. - Using -i for -u nouns. Wrong: shoki, zogi. Right: shoku, zogu. - Using the subject form for the object. Wrong: E kam libri. Right: E kam librin. - Confusing the article with i and e. Libri is "the book"; libri i djalit is "the boy's book". The i is a separate word. - Using the article after a demonstrative. "This book" is ky libër, with the indefinite noun. Wrong: ky libri. - Forgetting ë. Wrong: vajze, shtepi, nena. Right: vajzë, shtëpi, nëna. - Writing the plural by adding -s. Albanian plurals are irregular. The plural of djalë is djem.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Frequency and register. The article endings occur in nearly every sentence of Albanian, in speech and writing alike, and they belong to every register. The vocabulary list ranks "the" first in English, and in Albanian the article is just as constant, though it is never a word of its own.
A Balkan feature. A definite article added to the end of the noun is not usual in Europe. Albanian shares it with its neighbours Romanian, Bulgarian and Macedonian, which form a group of languages in the Balkans that have grown alike though they are not closely related. A learner who knows any of them will recognise the idea at once. The endings themselves are Albanian.
Names and the article. Albanians name their country Shqipëria, with the article, and Kosovo Kosova. The indefinite form Shqipëri is the form that appears after a preposition, as in në Shqipëri "in Albania". The language itself is gjuha shqipe, "the Albanian language", where gjuha is the definite form of gjuhë "language", and speakers also call it simply shqip.
Everyday phrases.
- Mirëdita "good day, hello" is mirë "good" and dita "the day". The article is part of the greeting. - Natën e mirë "good night" has natën "the night" in the object form. - Ku është libri? (1.3) and A e ke librin? (1.5) are everyday questions in any home or classroom.
Regional variety. The forms taught here are those of the standard language, which is based on Tosk and is written in Albania, in Kosovo and wherever Albanian is taught. Gheg speakers in the north of Albania and in Kosovo also use a suffixed article, and they write the same standard. In speech Gheg endings and many words differ from the standard, and the lessons say so where it matters.
In poetry. Naim Frashëri (1846–1900), a poet of the Albanian national revival, opens his poem Bagëti e bujqësi of 1886 with an address to the mountains, oaks and fields of his country, and the nouns of the address are almost all definite: malet, lisat, fushat. Section F gives the opening lines.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Naim Frashëri, "O malet' e Shqipërisë" ("O mountains of Albania"), the opening of Bagëti e bujqësi ("Livestock and Farming"), published in 1886. The first two lines.
The text is given as printed in the online copies consulted, which keep the apostrophes and the older spellings of the poet's time (malet', lisat', gjëra, mënt, dit'); we have not modernised it, and the translation is ours. In these two lines the poet addresses the mountains and the oaks, the fields and the flowers of Albania. The mountains, oaks and fields are named with the definite ending, and the flowers and the time are not.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a O O malet' mountains-the e of Shqipërisë Albania-the's e and ju you o O lisat' oaks-the e (link) gjatë tall
F.1b O /ɔ/ INTJ malet' /malɛt/ mountain.M.PL.DEF e /ɛ/ LINK Shqipërisë /ʃcipərisə/ Albania.F.SG.DEF.GEN e /ɛ/ and ju /ju/ 2PL o /ɔ/ INTJ lisat' /lisat/ oak.PL.DEF e /ɛ/ LINK gjatë /ɟatə/ tall
F.2a Fushat fields-the e (link) gjëra wide me with lule flowers q'u which-them kam I-have ndër in mënt mind dit' day e and natë night
F.2b Fushat /fuʃat/ field.F.PL.DEF e /ɛ/ LINK gjëra /ɟəɾa/ wide.PL me /mɛ/ with lule /lulɛ/ flower.F.PL.INDEF q'u /cu/ REL+CL (older form) kam /kam/ have.1SG.PRES ndër /ndəɾ/ in mënt /mənt/ mind dit' /ditə/ day e /ɛ/ and natë /natə/ night
F-B: Original → Translation
O malet' e Shqipërisë e ju o lisat' e gjatë! Fushat e gjëra me lule, q'u kam ndër mënt dit' e natë!
"O mountains of Albania, and you, O tall oaks! The wide fields with flowers, which I have in mind day and night!"
F-C: Original Only
O malet' e Shqipërisë e ju o lisat' e gjatë! Fushat e gjëra me lule, q'u kam ndër mënt dit' e natë!
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
- malet' e Shqipërisë: malet is male, the plural of mal "mountain", with the plural ending -t, as in librat and vajzat. The genitive that follows is joined by the linking article e: "the mountains of Albania". Shqipërisë is the genitive-dative form of Shqipëria, with the feminine ending -së (Section D, rule 7). - lisat' e gjatë: lisat is lisa, the plural of lis "oak", with the ending -t. After a definite plural noun the adjective takes the linking article e, so the phrase gives "the oaks, the tall ones". Today it is written lisat e gjatë. - Fushat e gjëra me lule: fushat is fusha, the plural of fushë "field", with -t. Gjëra is the older spelling of gjera "wide". Lule is indefinite here, so the poet does not point at particular flowers but at flowers in general. - q'u kam ndër mënt: q'u is an older spelling of the relative që with a short pronoun that refers back to the places named, and we do not analyse the pronoun further. Ndër mënt is "in mind", and the modern form is në mend. The sentence says that the poet keeps these places in his mind day and night. - dit' e natë: dit' is ditë "day", with its final vowel cut off in the older spelling. Both nouns are indefinite, and the pair means "day and night" as a set phrase.
The mountains, oaks and fields are named as particular things the poet knows and loves, and so they have the definite ending. The flowers and the time are named in general, and so they have none.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
A short description of an old house, its yard and its garden, and of the people who come to it. It is a pedagogical text built from verified patterns, with an article ending on a noun in nearly every sentence. A thing is first named with një or without an article, and is then named again with the article.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
1.16a Shtëpia house-the e (link) vjetër old është is në in qytet town
1.16b Shtëpia /ʃtəpia/ house.F.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ LINK.F vjetër /vjɛtəɾ/ old është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in qytet /cytɛt/ town.M.SG.INDEF
1.17a Para before shtëpisë house-the's ka there-is një a oborr yard të (link) vogël small
1.17b Para /paɾa/ before shtëpisë /ʃtəpisə/ house.F.SG.DEF.GEN ka /ka/ have.3SG.PRES.EXIST një /ɲə/ a oborr /ɔbɔr/ yard.M.SG.INDEF.ACC të /tə/ LINK vogël /vɔɡəl/ small
1.18a Në in oborr yard ka there-is një a pemë tree të (link) madhe big
1.18b Në /nə/ in oborr /ɔbɔr/ yard.M.SG.INDEF ka /ka/ have.3SG.PRES.EXIST një /ɲə/ a pemë /pɛmə/ tree.F.SG.INDEF.ACC të /tə/ LINK madhe /maðɛ/ big
1.19a Një a zog bird këndon sings në in pemë tree çdo every mëngjes morning
1.19b Një /ɲə/ a zog /zɔɡ/ bird.M.SG.INDEF këndon /kəndɔn/ sing.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in pemë /pɛmə/ tree.F.SG.INDEF çdo /tʃdɔ/ every mëngjes /mənɟɛs/ morning.M.SG.INDEF
1.20a Zogu bird-the është is i (link) vogël small por but zëri voice-the i of zogut bird-the's është is i (link) bukur beautiful
1.20b Zogu /zɔɡu/ bird.M.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES i /i/ LINK.M vogël /vɔɡəl/ small por /pɔɾ/ but zëri /zəɾi/ voice.M.SG.DEF.NOM i /i/ LINK.M zogut /zɔɡut/ bird.M.SG.DEF.GEN është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES i /i/ LINK.M bukur /bukuɾ/ beautiful
1.21a Pas behind shtëpisë house-the's ka there-is një a kopsht garden
1.21b Pas /pas/ behind shtëpisë /ʃtəpisə/ house.F.SG.DEF.GEN ka /ka/ have.3SG.PRES.EXIST një /ɲə/ a kopsht /kɔpʃt/ garden.M.SG.INDEF.ACC
1.22a Në in kopsht garden ka there-is lule flowers të (link) bukura beautiful
1.22b Në /nə/ in kopsht /kɔpʃt/ garden.M.SG.INDEF ka /ka/ have.3SG.PRES.EXIST lule /lulɛ/ flower.F.PL.INDEF.ACC të /tə/ LINK bukura /bukuɾa/ beautiful.PL
1.23a Lulet flowers-the janë are të (link) kuqe red dhe and të (link) bardha white
1.23b Lulet /lulɛt/ flower.F.PL.DEF.NOM janë /janə/ be.3PL.PRES të /tə/ LINK kuqe /cucɛ/ red.PL dhe /ðɛ/ and të /tə/ LINK bardha /baɾða/ white.PL
1.24a Nëna mother-the shikon looks-at lulet flowers-the në in kopsht garden
1.24b Nëna /nəna/ mother.F.SG.DEF.NOM shikon /ʃikɔn/ look.3SG.PRES lulet /lulɛt/ flower.F.PL.DEF.ACC në /nə/ in kopsht /kɔpʃt/ garden.M.SG.INDEF
1.25a Vajza girl-the e her ndihmon helps nënën mother-the në in kuzhinë kitchen
1.25b Vajza /vajza/ girl.F.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL ndihmon /ndihmɔn/ help.3SG.PRES nënën /nənən/ mother.F.SG.DEF.ACC në /nə/ in kuzhinë /kuʒinə/ kitchen.F.SG.INDEF
1.26a Nëna mother-the e her pyet asks Ku where është is libri book-the
1.26b Nëna /nəna/ mother.F.SG.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ 3SG.ACC.CL pyet /pyɛt/ ask.3SG.PRES Ku /ku/ where është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES libri /libɾi/ book.M.SG.DEF.NOM
1.27a Vajza girl-the përgjigjet answers Libri book-the është is në in çantën bag-the e of shkollës school-the's
1.27b Vajza /vajza/ girl.F.SG.DEF.NOM përgjigjet /pəɾɟiɟɛt/ answer.3SG.PRES Libri /libɾi/ book.M.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES në /nə/ in çantën /tʃantən/ bag.F.SG.DEF.ACC e /ɛ/ LINK.F shkollës /ʃkɔɫəs/ school.F.SG.DEF.GEN
1.28a Pastaj then shokët friends-the e of vajzës girl-the's hyjnë enter në into shtëpi house
1.28b Pastaj /pastaj/ then shokët /ʃɔkət/ friend.M.PL.DEF.NOM e /ɛ/ LINK.M.PL vajzës /vajzəs/ girl.F.SG.DEF.GEN hyjnë /hyjnə/ enter.3PL.PRES në /nə/ into shtëpi /ʃtəpi/ house.F.SG.INDEF
1.29a Shtëpia house-the është is plot full me with njerëz people
1.29b Shtëpia /ʃtəpia/ house.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES plot /plɔt/ full me /mɛ/ with njerëz /ɲɛɾəz/ people.PL.INDEF
1.30a Dita day-the është is e (link) bukur beautiful dhe and të (link) gjithë all janë are të (link) lumtur happy
1.30b Dita /dita/ day.F.SG.DEF.NOM është /ɛʃtə/ be.3SG.PRES e /ɛ/ LINK.F bukur /bukuɾ/ beautiful dhe /ðɛ/ and të /tə/ LINK.PL gjithë /ɟiðə/ all janë /janə/ be.3PL.PRES të /tə/ LINK.PL lumtur /lumtuɾ/ happy
Part B: Natural Sentences
1.16 Shtëpia e vjetër është në qytet. → "The old house is in town."
1.17 Para shtëpisë ka një oborr të vogël. → "In front of the house there is a small yard."
1.18 Në oborr ka një pemë të madhe. → "In the yard there is a big tree."
1.19 Një zog këndon në pemë çdo mëngjes. → "A bird sings in the tree every morning."
1.20 Zogu është i vogël, por zëri i zogut është i bukur. → "The bird is small, but the bird's voice is beautiful."
1.21 Pas shtëpisë ka një kopsht. → "Behind the house there is a garden."
1.22 Në kopsht ka lule të bukura. → "In the garden there are beautiful flowers."
1.23 Lulet janë të kuqe dhe të bardha. → "The flowers are red and white."
1.24 Nëna shikon lulet në kopsht. → "Mother looks at the flowers in the garden."
1.25 Vajza e ndihmon nënën në kuzhinë. → "The girl helps her mother in the kitchen."
1.26 Nëna e pyet: "Ku është libri?" → "Mother asks her, 'Where is the book?'"
1.27 Vajza përgjigjet: "Libri është në çantën e shkollës." → "The girl answers, 'The book is in the school bag.'"
1.28 Pastaj shokët e vajzës hyjnë në shtëpi. → "Then the girl's friends come into the house."
1.29 Shtëpia është plot me njerëz. → "The house is full of people."
1.30 Dita është e bukur dhe të gjithë janë të lumtur. → "The day is beautiful and everyone is happy."
Part C: Target Language Only
1.16 Shtëpia e vjetër është në qytet.
1.17 Para shtëpisë ka një oborr të vogël.
1.18 Në oborr ka një pemë të madhe.
1.19 Një zog këndon në pemë çdo mëngjes.
1.20 Zogu është i vogël, por zëri i zogut është i bukur.
1.21 Pas shtëpisë ka një kopsht.
1.22 Në kopsht ka lule të bukura.
1.23 Lulet janë të kuqe dhe të bardha.
1.24 Nëna shikon lulet në kopsht.
1.25 Vajza e ndihmon nënën në kuzhinë.
1.26 Nëna e pyet: "Ku është libri?"
1.27 Vajza përgjigjet: "Libri është në çantën e shkollës."
1.28 Pastaj shokët e vajzës hyjnë në shtëpi.
1.29 Shtëpia është plot me njerëz.
1.30 Dita është e bukur dhe të gjithë janë të lumtur.
Part D: Grammar Notes for the Genre Section
- First mention and second mention. In 1.19 the bird is new, so it has një and no ending: një zog. In 1.20 it is known, so it takes the article: zogu. The same happens with libri (1.26, 1.27): the book is known to mother and girl, so it has the ending. English does the same with "a bird" and "the bird". - Definite subjects. Each sentence has a subject in the definite form: shtëpia (1.16), zogu (1.20), lulet (1.23), nëna (1.24), vajza (1.25), dita (1.30). The endings are -a, -u, -t and -a, as in Section D. - Genitive forms. The genitive-dative form after a head noun appears in zëri i zogut (1.20), çantën e shkollës (1.27) and shokët e vajzës (1.28). The linking article agrees with the head noun: zëri is masculine and takes i, çantën is feminine and takes e, and shokët is plural and takes e. The same form follows para and pas in 1.17 and 1.21: shtëpisë. - Existential ka. Ka means "there is" (1.17, 1.18, 1.21, 1.22). The noun after it is indefinite and takes the object form, and an adjective takes të: një oborr të vogël, lule të bukura. - Object forms and the clitic. Nënën (1.25) is the object form of nëna, with the clitic e before the verb: e ndihmon nënën "helps her mother". In 1.26 the clitic e stands for the girl: e pyet "asks her". - Plural. Lulet (1.23) is lule + t. Shokët (1.28) is shokë + t, and the ending is spelled -ët. Njerëz "people" (1.29) is indefinite. - Indefinite after në. Në qytet (1.16), në oborr (1.18), në pemë (1.19), në kopsht (1.22), në kuzhinë (1.25) and në shtëpi (1.28) all keep the noun indefinite. Në çantën e shkollës (1.27) takes the article because the bag is described. - Adjective links. Predicate adjectives take i or e: i vogël, i bukur (1.20), e bukur (1.30). A plural predicate takes të: të kuqe, të bardha (1.23), të lumtur (1.30). After a definite noun: shtëpia e vjetër (1.16). - Quotation. Direct speech is introduced by a colon and put in quotation marks (1.26, 1.27).
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Check these in every sentence:
- The article endings. -i /i/, -u /u/, -a /a/, -ja /ja/ and -t /t/ are short and clear. Say libri /libɾi/ and vajza /vajza/, never with an English glide. - ë. Always written and always counted: libër, vajzë, nënë, është, këtu, nëna, çantë. At the end of a word it is a weak /ə/. Wrong: vajze, nena, shtepi. - ç and c. Ç /tʃ/ is "ch" (çantë, çdo). C /ts/ is "ts" (macja). - dh, gj, ll, nj, rr, sh, q. These are letters in their own right, and each stands for one sound. Dhe /ðɛ/, gjatë /ɟatə/, shkollë /ʃkɔɫə/, një /ɲə/, burri /buri/, shtëpi /ʃtəpi/, qytet /cytɛt/. - r and rr. Libri has a tap and burri has a trill. Dera /dɛɾa/ and burra are different words in sound. - Loss of ë. Libër → libri, djalë → djali, burrë → burri, ujë → uji. The ë is lost when the ending is added. - Dropped vowels. Vajzë → vajza, nënë → nëna, mace → macja, dritare → dritarja. - Capitals. Names of countries and cities are capitalised (Shqipëria, Tirana), but the Albanian word for the language, shqip, is not. - Quotation marks. This lesson uses plain quotation marks for speech. In Albanian print one meets also „ " and « ». - Diacritics used in this lesson: ç ë. Check every one in every form.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
---
Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)