What does "use" mean in Arabic?
English "use" is a verb and a noun, and the two are not the same word in Arabic. As a verb ("I use a pen," "she used the key"), the everyday word is اِسْتَخْدَمَ (istakhdama), "he used," present يَسْتَخْدِمُ (yastakhdimu), "he uses, he is using." This lesson teaches the verb. The noun "a use, the use" is اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām), "using, employment," and "what's the use?" is another phrase altogether: ما الفائدة؟ (mā al-fāʾida?), "what is the benefit?" "It's no use" is لا فائدة (lā fāʾida).
The verb takes a direct object, and the thing used is simply in the accusative: أستخدم القلمَ (astakhdimu al-qalama), "I use the pen." There is no preposition between "use" and the thing. English "use X for Y" and "use X to do Y" are made with لِـ (li-), "for, in order to": استخدمتُ المفتاحَ لفتحِ الباب (istakhdamtu al-miftāḥa li-fatḥi al-bāb), "I used the key to open the door."
The word is built on the root خ د م (kh-d-m), whose basic idea is "serve." The simple verb خَدَمَ (khadama) is "he served"; خِدْمَة (khidma) is "service"; خَادِم (khādim) is "servant" and, today, "server" in computing. The pattern of اِسْتَخْدَمَ is Form X (istafʿala), whose common idea is "to seek, to ask for, to take as." So the verb's first sense is "to take into one's service": to employ a person, and so to put a thing to work. The two senses are both alive: استخدمت الشركة مهندسين (the company employed engineers) and استخدم المفتاح (he used the key).
Arabic also has a close partner, اِسْتَعْمَلَ (istaʿmala), from the root ع م ل, "work," and built in the same Form X pattern. In the modern standard language the two are used for the same things, and Section D says how they differ in origin.
- اِسْتَخْدَمَ / يَسْتَخْدِمُ (istakhdama / yastakhdimu) = "to use, to employ"; verbal noun اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām) - A direct verb: the thing used is in the accusative, with no preposition: أستخدم القلمَ - "Use X to do Y": لِـ + the verbal noun in the genitive, or لِـ + a verb in the subjunctive: لفتحِ الباب / لأفتحَ الباب - Form X: the present is يَسْتَخْدِمُ with a kasra on the d (yastakhdimu); the passive is يُسْتَخْدَمُ (yustakhdamu), with a fatḥa - Derived words: مُسْتَخْدِم (mustakhdim), "user"; مُسْتَخْدَم (mustakhdam), "used; employee"; اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām), "use, employment" - "Used to" (a past habit) is كان + the present: كان يستخدم. "To be used to" (accustomed) is a different verb, اعتاد (iʿtāda) - A plural of things is "it" in the feminine singular: استخدمتُ الأقلامَ ثم أعدتُها, "I used the pens and then returned them"
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57.1a أستخدم I-use القلم the-pen
57.1b astakhdimu (as-TAKH-di-mu) I-use-PRES.1SG al-qalama (al-QA-la-ma) the-pen-ACC
57.2a استخدم use المصعد the-lift
57.2b istakhdim (is-TAKH-dim) use-IMP.M.SG al-miṣʿada (al-MIṢ-ʿa-da) the-lift-ACC
57.3a هي she تستخدم she-uses الحاسوب the-computer
57.3b hiya (HI-ya) she tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) she-uses-PRES.3F.SG al-ḥāsūba (al-ḥaa-SOO-ba) the-computer-ACC
57.4a لا not نستخدم we-use السكر the-sugar
57.4b lā (laa) NEG nastakhdimu (nas-TAKH-di-mu) we-use-PRES.1PL as-sukkara (as-SUK-ka-ra) the-sugar-ACC
57.5a ماذا what تستخدم you-use
57.5b mādhā (MAA-dhaa) what-INTERROG tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) you-use-PRES.2M.SG
57.6a استخدمت I-used المفتاح the-key لفتح for-opening الباب the-door
57.6b istakhdamtu (is-takh-DAM-tu) I-used-PAST.1SG al-miftāḥa (al-mif-TAA-ḥa) the-key-ACC li-fatḥi (li-FAT-ḥi) for-opening-GEN.CONSTRUCT al-bāb (al-BAAB) the-door-GEN
57.7a كان was جدي my-grandfather يستخدم he-uses عصاً a-cane قديمة old
57.7b kāna (KAA-na) was-PAST.3M.SG jaddī (JAD-dee) grandfather-NOM-my yastakhdimu (yas-TAKH-di-mu) he-uses-PRES.3M.SG ʿaṣan (ʿA-ṣan) cane-F.ACC qadīmatan (qa-DEE-ma-tan) old-F.ACC
57.8a لم not تستخدم she-uses سلمى Salma الهاتف the-phone اليوم today
57.8b lam (lam) NEG.PAST tastakhdim (tas-TAKH-dim) use-JUSS.3F.SG Salmā (SAL-maa) Salma-NOM al-hātifa (al-HAA-ti-fa) the-phone-ACC al-yawma (al-YAW-ma) the-day-ACC.ADV
57.9a يُسْتَخْدَمُ is-used الملح the-salt في in الطبخ the-cooking
57.9b yustakhdamu (yus-TAKH-da-mu) is-used-PRES.PASS.3M.SG al-milḥu (al-MIL-ḥu) the-salt-NOM fī (fee) in aṭ-ṭabkhi (aṭ-TAB-khi) the-cooking-GEN
57.10a استخدمت employed الشركة the-company خمسة five مهندسين engineers جدد new
57.10b istakhdamat (is-takh-DA-mat) employed-PAST.3F.SG ash-sharikatu (ash-SHA-ri-ka-tu) the-company-F.NOM khamsata (KHAM-sa-ta) five-F.ACC.CONSTRUCT muhandisīna (mu-han-di-SEE-na) engineers-M.PL.GEN jududin (JU-du-din) new-PL.GEN
57.11a تستخدم uses أمي my-mother الحاسوب the-computer لتتحدث so-that-she-talks مع with أختي my-sister في in كندا Canada
57.11b tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) uses-PRES.3F.SG ummī (UM-mee) mother-NOM-my al-ḥāsūba (al-ḥaa-SOO-ba) the-computer-ACC li-tataḥaddatha (li-ta-ta-ḥad-DA-tha) so-that-she-talks-SUBJ.3F.SG maʿa (MA-ʿa) with-ACC ukhtī (UKH-tee) sister-GEN-my fī (fee) in Kandā (KA-na-daa) Canada
57.12a هل is-it-that تستطيع you-can أن that تستخدم you-use هذه this الآلة the-machine من from دون without مساعدة help
57.12b hal (hal) INTERROG tastaṭīʿu (tas-ta-ṬEE-ʿu) you-can-PRES.2M.SG an (an) that tastakhdima (tas-TAKH-di-ma) you-use-SUBJ.2M.SG hādhihi (HAA-dhi-hi) this-F.SG al-ālata (al-AA-la-ta) the-machine-F.ACC min (min) from dūni (DOO-ni) without-GEN.CONSTRUCT musāʿadatin (mu-saa-ʿa-DA-tin) help-F.GEN
57.13a لا not تستخدم use هاتفك your-phone أثناء during القيادة the-driving
57.13b lā (laa) NEG.IMP tastakhdim (tas-TAKH-dim) use-JUSS.2M.SG hātifa-ka (HAA-ti-fa-ka) phone-ACC-your-M.SG athnāʾa (ath-NAA-ʾa) during-ACC al-qiyādati (al-qi-YAA-da-ti) the-driving-F.GEN
57.14a لو if استخدمتَ you-used الخريطة the-map لوصلنا we-would-have-arrived قبل before الظهر the-noon
57.14b law (law) if istakhdamta (is-takh-DAM-ta) you-used-PAST.2M.SG al-kharīṭata (al-kha-REE-ṭa-ta) the-map-F.ACC la-waṣalnā (la-WAṢ-naa) would-arrived-PAST.1PL qabla (QAB-la) before-ACC aẓ-ẓuhr (aẓ-ZUHR) the-noon-GEN
57.15a استخدم used المصريون the-Egyptians القدماء the-ancients ورق paper البردي the-papyrus للكتابة for-the-writing
57.15b istakhdama (is-takh-DA-ma) used-PAST.3M.SG al-miṣriyyūna (al-miṣ-riy-YOO-na) the-Egyptians-M.PL.NOM al-qudamāʾu (al-qu-da-MAA-ʾu) the-ancients-NOM waraqa (WA-ra-qa) paper-ACC.CONSTRUCT al-bardiyyi (al-bar-DIY-yi) the-papyrus-GEN li-l-kitābati (lil-ki-TAA-ba-ti) for-the-writing-F.GEN
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57.1 أستخدم القلم — astakhdimu al-qalam — "I use the pen."
57.2 استخدم المصعد — istakhdim al-miṣʿad — "Use the lift." (to a man)
57.3 هي تستخدم الحاسوب — hiya tastakhdimu al-ḥāsūb — "She uses the computer."
57.4 لا نستخدم السكر — lā nastakhdimu as-sukkar — "We do not use sugar."
57.5 ماذا تستخدم؟ — mādhā tastakhdimu? — "What do you use?" (to a man)
57.6 استخدمت المفتاح لفتح الباب — istakhdamtu al-miftāḥ li-fatḥi al-bāb — "I used the key to open the door."
57.7 كان جدي يستخدم عصاً قديمة — kāna jaddī yastakhdimu ʿaṣan qadīmatan — "My grandfather used to use an old cane."
57.8 لم تستخدم سلمى الهاتف اليوم — lam tastakhdim Salmā al-hātif al-yawm — "Salma did not use the phone today."
57.9 يُسْتَخْدَمُ الملح في الطبخ — yustakhdamu al-milḥ fī aṭ-ṭabkh — "Salt is used in cooking."
57.10 استخدمت الشركة خمسة مهندسين جدد — istakhdamat ash-sharika khamsata muhandisīna jududin — "The company employed five new engineers."
57.11 تستخدم أمي الحاسوب لتتحدث مع أختي في كندا — tastakhdimu ummī al-ḥāsūb li-tataḥaddatha maʿa ukhtī fī Kandā — "My mother uses the computer to talk with my sister in Canada."
57.12 هل تستطيع أن تستخدم هذه الآلة من دون مساعدة؟ — hal tastaṭīʿu an tastakhdima hādhihi al-āla min dūni musāʿadatin? — "Can you use this machine without help?" (to a man)
57.13 لا تستخدم هاتفك أثناء القيادة — lā tastakhdim hātifaka athnāʾa al-qiyāda — "Do not use your phone while driving." (to a man)
57.14 لو استخدمتَ الخريطة لوصلنا قبل الظهر — law istakhdamta al-kharīṭa la-waṣalnā qabla aẓ-ẓuhr — "If you had used the map, we would have arrived before noon." (to a man)
57.15 استخدم المصريون القدماء ورق البردي للكتابة — istakhdama al-miṣriyyūna al-qudamāʾu waraqa al-bardī li-l-kitāba — "The ancient Egyptians used papyrus for writing."
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57.1 أستخدم القلم
57.2 استخدم المصعد
57.3 هي تستخدم الحاسوب
57.4 لا نستخدم السكر
57.5 ماذا تستخدم؟
57.6 استخدمت المفتاح لفتح الباب
57.7 كان جدي يستخدم عصاً قديمة
57.8 لم تستخدم سلمى الهاتف اليوم
57.9 يُسْتَخْدَمُ الملح في الطبخ
57.10 استخدمت الشركة خمسة مهندسين جدد
57.11 تستخدم أمي الحاسوب لتتحدث مع أختي في كندا
57.12 هل تستطيع أن تستخدم هذه الآلة من دون مساعدة؟
57.13 لا تستخدم هاتفك أثناء القيادة
57.14 لو استخدمتَ الخريطة لوصلنا قبل الظهر
57.15 استخدم المصريون القدماء ورق البردي للكتابة
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1. What kind of verb it is. اِسْتَخْدَمَ is a regular (sound) verb of Form X, the pattern istafʿala, on the root خ د م. Its past is اِسْتَخْدَمَ (istakhdama), its present يَسْتَخْدِمُ (yastakhdimu), its command اِسْتَخْدِمْ (istakhdim), its verbal noun اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām), its active participle مُسْتَخْدِم (mustakhdim), "using, a user," and its passive participle مُسْتَخْدَم (mustakhdam), "used." It is transitive: it always has something that is used, in the accusative.
2. The past. The endings are the ordinary ones, added to the stem اِسْتَخْدَمـ (istakhdam-). The long forms are written with a silent alif where the plural ends in -ū. - استخدمتُ (istakhdamtu), "I used" - استخدمتَ (istakhdamta), "you used" (to a man); استخدمتِ (istakhdamti), to a woman - استخدمَ (istakhdama), "he used"; استخدمتْ (istakhdamat), "she used" - استخدمنا (istakhdamnā), "we used" - استخدمتم (istakhdamtum), "you used" (plural); استخدموا (istakhdamū), "they used"
3. The present. The prefixes are the usual ya-, ta-, a-, na-, joined to the stem -stakhdim-. The vowel on the d is a kasra, in every person. - أستخدمُ (astakhdimu), "I use" - تستخدمُ (tastakhdimu), "you use" (to a man) and "she uses"; تستخدمينَ (tastakhdimīna), "you use" (to a woman) - يستخدمُ (yastakhdimu), "he uses" - نستخدمُ (nastakhdimu), "we use" - تستخدمونَ (tastakhdimūna), "you use" (plural); يستخدمونَ (yastakhdimūna), "they use"; يستخدمنَ (yastakhdimna), "they (women) use"
The 2nd person masculine and the 3rd person feminine are the same in the singular: تستخدم. The sentence tells you which is meant (57.3 is "she uses," and 57.5 is "you use"). The subjunctive after أن، لن، لِـ drops the damma: أن أستخدمَ (an astakhdima). The jussive, after لم and لا (the command), has a sukūn: لم تستخدمْ (lam tastakhdim, 57.8), لا تستخدمْ (lā tastakhdim, 57.13).
4. The command. To a man اِسْتَخْدِمْ (istakhdim, 57.2), to a woman اِسْتَخْدِمِي (istakhdimī), to several people اِسْتَخْدِمُوا (istakhdimū). The opening alif is a hamzat al-waṣl: it is pronounced only at the start of an utterance. After a word it is silent, and the speech runs on: ثم استخدم is "thumma-stakhdama," فاستخدم is "fa-stakhdama," and بعد أن استخدم is "baʿda an-istakhdama."
5. The passive. In the passive, the prefix has a damma, and the vowel on the d is a fatḥa: يُسْتَخْدَمُ (yustakhdamu), "is used"; the past is اُسْتُخْدِمَ (ustukhdima), "was used." Written without vowels, the passive and the active look the same: يستخدم. The context says which (57.9: الملح is the thing used, so the verb is passive). To say what a thing is used for, say يُستخدم في (yustakhdamu fī) + a noun, or يُستخدم لـ (yustakhdamu li-) + a verbal noun: يُستخدم هذا الدواء لعلاج الصداع (yustakhdamu hādhā ad-dawāʾ li-ʿilāji aṣ-ṣudāʿ), "this medicine is used to treat headaches."
6. "Use X to do Y." The purpose is introduced by لِـ. After لِـ there are two choices. With the verbal noun, which is in the genitive: استخدمتُ المفتاح لفتحِ الباب (57.6), "I used the key for the opening of the door." With a verb in the subjunctive, when the subject is the same: تستخدم أمي الحاسوب لتتحدثَ (57.11), "my mother uses the computer so that she talks." The English "to" in "to open" is never أن; the Arabic is لِـ.
7. The pronoun object. The object pronoun is a suffix joined straight onto the verb: استخدمتُه (istakhdamtuhu), "I used it" (masculine); استخدمتُها (istakhdamtuhā), "I used it, I used them (things)"; استخدمني (istakhdamanī), "he used me." For a plural of things and animals, the pronoun is the feminine singular: استخدمتُ الأقلامَ ثم أعدتُها (istakhdamtu al-aqlām thumma aʿadtuhā), "I used the pens and then put them back." After the 2nd person feminine command, the suffix follows the long ī: استخدميه (istakhdimī-hi, genre section 57.17).
8. "Use" for a person: "employ." The older sense is "to take into service": استخدمت الشركة خمسة مهندسين (57.10), "the company employed five engineers." The participle مُسْتَخْدَم (mustakhdam) is "an employee" and اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām) is "employment, hiring." The English sense of "using a person," that is, treating a person as a tool, is the same verb.
9. Where the two words meet: اِسْتَعْمَلَ (istaʿmala). In origin, استخدم is "to ask for service" (from خدم, "serve") and استعمل is "to ask someone to work" or "to put a thing to work" (from عمل, "work"). In modern standard Arabic the difference is no longer observed in practice: both are used for tools, machines, words, medicines and force, and a text may choose either. The Charter sentence in Section F uses both: التهديد باستعمال القوة أو استخدامها. A few fixed phrases prefer one: للاستعمال الخارجي فقط (li-l-istiʿmāl al-khārijī faqaṭ), "for external use only" on a medicine; اسم المستخدم (ism al-mustakhdim), "username" and شروط الاستخدام (shurūṭ al-istikhdām), "terms of use," on a website. The patterns of the two verbs are the same: يستعمل (yastaʿmilu), اُستُعمل (ustuʿmila), استعمال (istiʿmāl).
10. Negation and tenses. The negative of the present is لا + the present: لا نستخدم السكر (57.4). The negative of the past is لم + the jussive: لم تستخدم (57.8). The negative of the future is لن + the subjunctive: لن أستخدمه (57.16). The future is سـ + the present: سأستخدم (sa-astakhdimu), "I will use." The past habit "used to use" is كان + the present: كان جدي يستخدم (57.7), "my grandfather used to use."
11. Non-uses. Arabic does not use this verb in three places where English says "use." - "To be used to" (accustomed): اعتاد (iʿtāda): اعتدتُ على البرد (iʿtadtu ʿalā al-bard), "I am used to the cold." - "Use up," "exhaust": استنفد (istanfadha) or نفد (nafida, "ran out"): نفد السكر, "the sugar ran out." - "Use" (a noun, "benefit"): فائدة (fāʾida): لا فائدة, "it's no use."
12. Time words with it. أثناء (athnāʾa), "during," takes the verbal noun in the genitive: أثناءَ القيادة (athnāʾa al-qiyāda, 57.13). لو (law) + the past, then ل + the past, is the "if … would have" of what did not happen: لو استخدمتَ الخريطةَ لوصلنا (57.14).
- Putting a preposition after it. The thing used is the direct object: استخدمتُ القلمَ, never *استخدمتُ بالقلم. - Mixing up the vowel of the present. The active is يَسْتَخْدِمُ (yastakhdimu), with a kasra. يَسْتَخْدَمُ (yastakhdamu), with a fatḥa, is the passive: "is used." - Using أن for the purpose. "I used the key to open the door" is لفتح الباب or لأفتحَ الباب, never *أن أفتح الباب. - Forgetting that a plural of things is a feminine singular. "I used them" (the pens) is استخدمتُها, not *استخدمتُهم, which is for people. - Reading a tool as a person. استخدمتُ الهاتف is "I used the phone." استخدمتُ الرجل is "I employed the man" or "I used the man," so the object decides the sense. - Using it for "used to" (accustomed). "I am used to the cold" is اعتدتُ على البرد. استخدمتُ البرد would mean "I used the cold." - Leaving the verb in the indicative after أن. After أن, لن and لـ the verb is subjunctive: أن تستخدمَ, not *أن تستخدمُ. - Confusing 2nd masculine with 3rd feminine. تستخدم is "you use" (to a man) and "she uses." Look for the subject. - Writing the alif of the verb after a word and pronouncing it. After a word, اِسْتَخْدَمَ begins without a vowel: "wa-stakhdama" in speech, and "fa-stakhdama" for فاستخدم.
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استخدم is one of the working verbs of the modern written language. It is the verb of instructions (استخدم المصعد), of regulations (يُمنع استخدام الهاتف, "the use of the phone is forbidden"), of technology (استخدام الإنترنت, "internet use"; مستخدم, "a user") and of history and science (استخدم القدماء…, "the ancients used…"). In the news the noun is everywhere: استخدام القوة, "the use of force," and إساءة استخدام, "misuse."
Because of the computer, the participle مستخدم (mustakhdim, "user") has become one of the commonest words of the Arabic screen: اسم المستخدم is "the username," and a page asks the user to accept شروط الاستخدام, "the terms of use." A product that is easy to use is سهل الاستخدام (sahl al-istikhdām). The phrase للاستخدام الشخصي (li-l-istikhdām ash-shakhṣī) is "for personal use."
The verb is also heard in the spoken dialects, where the vowels are loosened and the prefix may be joined to a particle: يستخدم becomes yistakhdim, and the present of habit is often marked by a prefix (in Egyptian بيستخدم, biyistakhdim; in Levantine عم يستخدم, ʿam yistakhdim, for "he is using"). The partner يستعمل (yistaʿmil) is heard as well. The learner who knows the standard forms will recognise both at once.
- سهل الاستخدام (sahl al-istikhdām) — "easy to use" - شروط الاستخدام (shurūṭ al-istikhdām) — "terms of use" - اسم المستخدم (ism al-mustakhdim) — "username" - إساءة استخدام (isāʾat istikhdām) — "misuse, abuse" (literally "bad use") - استخدام القوة (istikhdām al-quwwa) — "the use of force" - للاستعمال الخارجي فقط (li-l-istiʿmāl al-khārijī faqaṭ) — "for external use only" - لا فائدة (lā fāʾida) — "it's no use"
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The citation is from the Charter of the United Nations (signed at San Francisco in 1945), Chapter I, Article 2, paragraph 4: the rule that members must refrain from the threat or use of force. It holds the lesson's word twice over, as the verbal nouns of the two partners: استعمال (istiʿmāl) and استخدام (istikhdām), side by side in one phrase. It is chosen because it shows the pair as the language of law uses them. The finite verb يستخدم does not occur in it: the lesson's word here is the verbal noun, which Section D (rule 1) sets out. The wording follows the Arabic text of the Charter on the United Nations website, Chapter I, and was identified as Article 2(4) by a second, separate web search for the same sentence. The text is given as published, without vowel signs. The English is the Latinum Institute's own, kept close to the Arabic.
F.1a يمتنع refrains أعضاء members الهيئة the-body جميعاً all في in علاقاتهم their-relations الدولية the-international عن from التهديد the-threatening باستعمال by-use القوة the-force أو or استخدامها its-use ضد against سلامة integrity الأراضي the-lands أو or الاستقلال the-independence السياسي the-political لأية of-any دولة state أو or على on أي any وجه way آخر other لا not يتفق it-agrees ومقاصد with-purposes «الأمم the-nations المتحدة» the-united
F.1b yamtaniʿu (yam-TA-ni-ʿu) refrains-PRES.3M.SG aʿḍāʾu (aʿ-ḌAA-ʾu) members-CONSTRUCT.NOM al-hayʾati (al-HAY-ʾa-ti) the-body-F.GEN jamīʿan (ja-MEE-ʿan) all-ACC fī (fee) in ʿalāqāti-him (ʿa-laa-QAA-ti-him) relations-F.PL.GEN-their ad-dawliyyati (ad-daw-LIY-ya-ti) the-international-F.GEN ʿan (ʿan) from at-tahdīdi (at-tah-DEE-di) the-threatening-GEN bi-stiʿmāli (bis-tiʿ-MAA-li) by-use-GEN.CONSTRUCT al-quwwati (al-QUW-wa-ti) the-force-F.GEN aw (aw) or istikhdāmi-hā (is-tikh-DAA-mi-haa) use-GEN-its-F ḍidda (ḌID-da) against-ACC salāmati (sa-LAA-ma-ti) integrity-F.GEN.CONSTRUCT al-arāḍī (al-a-RAA-ḍee) the-lands-GEN aw (aw) or al-istiqlāli (al-is-tiq-LAA-li) the-independence-GEN as-siyāsiyyi (as-si-YAA-si-yyi) the-political-M.GEN li-ayyati (li-AY-ya-ti) of-any-F.GEN dawlatin (DAW-la-tin) state-F.GEN aw (aw) or ʿalā (ʿa-LAA) on ayyi (AY-yi) any-GEN wajhin (WAJ-hin) way-GEN ākhara (AA-kha-ra) other-M.GEN lā (laa) NEG yattafiqu (yat-TA-fi-qu) agrees-PRES.3M.SG wa-maqāṣidi (wa-ma-QAA-ṣi-di) with-purposes-GEN.CONSTRUCT al-umami (al-U-ma-mi) the-nations-GEN al-muttaḥidati (al-mut-ta-ḤI-da-ti) the-united-F.GEN
يمتنع أعضاء الهيئة جميعاً في علاقاتهم الدولية عن التهديد باستعمال القوة أو استخدامها ضد سلامة الأراضي أو الاستقلال السياسي لأية دولة أو على أي وجه آخر لا يتفق ومقاصد «الأمم المتحدة».
yamtaniʿu aʿḍāʾu al-hayʾati jamīʿan fī ʿalāqātihim ad-dawliyyati ʿan at-tahdīdi bi-stiʿmāli al-quwwati aw istikhdāmihā ḍidda salāmati al-arāḍī aw al-istiqlāli as-siyāsiyyi li-ayyati dawlatin aw ʿalā ayyi wajhin ākhara lā yattafiqu wa-maqāṣidi al-umami al-muttaḥidati.
"All the members of the Organization refrain, in their international relations, from the threat of the use of force or its use against the integrity of the territory or the political independence of any state, or in any other way that does not agree with the purposes of the United Nations."
— Charter of the United Nations, Chapter I, Article 2(4), Arabic text (translation: Latinum Institute, kept close to the Arabic)
يمتنع أعضاء الهيئة جميعاً في علاقاتهم الدولية عن التهديد باستعمال القوة أو استخدامها ضد سلامة الأراضي أو الاستقلال السياسي لأية دولة أو على أي وجه آخر لا يتفق ومقاصد «الأمم المتحدة».
- يمتنع أعضاء الهيئة (yamtaniʿu aʿḍāʾu al-hayʾati). "The members of the Organization refrain." The verb امتنع (imtanaʿa), Form VIII, "to refrain, to abstain," comes first, in the singular (a verb that precedes its subject does not agree in number), and its subject is أعضاء (aʿḍāʾ), "members," the first term of an idāfa with الهيئة (al-hayʾa), "the Organization, the body." - جميعاً (jamīʿan). "All, all together," an accusative adverb that stands for the members. - عن التهديد باستعمال القوة أو استخدامها (ʿan at-tahdīdi bi-stiʿmāli al-quwwati aw istikhdāmihā). The phrase "from the threat of the use of force or its use." امتنع takes عن (ʿan), "from." التهديد (at-tahdīd), "the threatening," is the verbal noun of هدّد (haddada, "to threaten"). The lesson's word is here. استعمال (istiʿmāl) is the verbal noun of استعمل, and استخدام (istikhdām) is the verbal noun of استخدم, and both are Form X verbal nouns of the pattern istifʿāl. The first stands as a genitive after the preposition بـ (bi-), "by, with"; the second is a genitive after أو (aw), "or," and carries the pronoun -hā, "its," which refers back to القوة (al-quwwa), "force," a feminine noun. The same word is repeated with its partner, and the effect is a legal doublet: "the threat of using force or the use of it." - ضد سلامة الأراضي (ḍidda salāmati al-arāḍī). "Against the integrity of the territory." ضد (ḍidda), "against," is an accusative adverb and puts the following noun in the genitive; سلامة (salāma), "integrity, safety," is the first term of an idāfa, and الأراضي (al-arāḍī), "the lands," is the genitive of the second. - أو الاستقلال السياسي لأية دولة (aw al-istiqlāl as-siyāsī li-ayyati dawla). "Or the political independence of any state." لأية (li-ayyati) is لِـ + أيّة, "any" (feminine), a construct before the indefinite noun دولة (dawla), "state." - أو على أي وجه آخر لا يتفق ومقاصد «الأمم المتحدة» (aw ʿalā ayyi wajhin ākhara lā yattafiqu wa-maqāṣidi al-umami al-muttaḥidati). "Or in any other way that does not agree with the purposes of the United Nations." The noun وجه (wajh), "face, way," carries the relative clause directly: لا يتفق (lā yattafiqu), "does not agree," with no الذي, because the noun is indefinite. The و (wa-) before مقاصد (maqāṣid), "purposes," is the so-called wāw of accompaniment: يتفق و… means "agrees with…," a standard way of saying it in legal prose (the more usual يتفق مع is also possible). الأمم المتحدة (al-umam al-muttaḥida) is "the United Nations," literally "the united nations," in the plural.
The sentence is a founding rule of the modern law of nations. Its effect is the ban on the threat or use of force between states.
For a learner of the verb, the sentence is useful for one more reason: it shows that both words, استعمال and استخدام, are in the language of law side by side, and that the repetition is a matter of drafting, not of two meanings. The lesson's Section D, rule 9, sets out the difference as it stands in the dictionaries: the origin of the two roots is different (serve / work), but modern usage does not keep them apart. The text also gives the verbal noun in two syntactic roles: governed by بـ (bi-stiʿmāl) and coordinated with it (aw istikhdāmihā), with the pronoun that points back to the feminine "force."
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57.16a قالت said جدتي my-grandmother عن about الجهاز the-device اللوحي the-tablet لن never أستخدمه I-use-it أبداً ever
57.16b qālat (QAA-lat) said-PAST.3F.SG jaddatī (jad-DA-tee) grandmother-NOM-my ʿan (ʿan) about al-jihāzi (al-ji-HAA-zi) the-device-GEN al-lawḥiyyi (al-law-ḤIY-yi) the-tablet-M.GEN lan (lan) NEG.FUT astakhdima-hu (as-TAKH-di-ma-hu) I-use-SUBJ.1SG-it-M abadan (A-ba-dan) ever-ACC.ADV
57.17a لكنني but-I جلست I-sat بجانبها by-her-side وقلت and-I-said استخدميه use-it معي with-me خطوة step خطوة step
57.17b lākinna-nī (laa-KIN-na-nee) but-I jalastu (ja-LAS-tu) I-sat-PAST.1SG bi-jānibi-hā (bi-JAA-ni-bi-haa) by-side-GEN-her wa-qultu (wa-QUL-tu) and-I-said-PAST.1SG istakhdimī-hi (is-takh-di-MEE-hi) use-IMP.F.SG-it-M maʿī (MA-ʿee) with-me khuṭwatan (KHUṬ-wa-tan) step-ACC.ADV khuṭwatan (KHUṬ-wa-tan) step-ACC.ADV
57.18a استخدمت used جدتي my-grandmother إصبعاً a-finger واحداً one في in البداية the-beginning
57.18b istakhdamat (is-takh-DA-mat) used-PAST.3F.SG jaddatī (jad-DA-tee) grandmother-NOM-my iṣbaʿan (iṣ-BA-ʿan) finger-M.ACC wāḥidan (WAA-ḥi-dan) one-M.ACC fī (fee) in al-bidāyati (al-bi-DAA-ya-ti) the-beginning-F.GEN
57.19a ثم then تعلمت she-learned كيف how تستخدم she-uses الشاشة the-screen
57.19b thumma (THUM-ma) then taʿallamat (ta-ʿal-LA-mat) she-learned-PAST.3F.SG kayfa (KAY-fa) how tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) she-uses-PRES.3F.SG ash-shāshata (ash-shaa-SHA-ta) the-screen-F.ACC
57.20a سألتني she-asked-me هل is-it يمكن possible أن that أستخدمه I-use-it لأرى to-see صور photos الأحفاد the-grandchildren
57.20b saʾalat-nī (SA-ʾa-lat-nee) she-asked-PAST.3F.SG-me hal (hal) INTERROG yumkinu (YUM-ki-nu) is-possible-PRES.3M.SG an (an) that astakhdima-hu (as-TAKH-di-ma-hu) I-use-SUBJ.1SG-it-M li-arā (li-A-raa) to-I-see-SUBJ.1SG ṣuwara (ṢU-wa-ra) photos-PL.ACC.CONSTRUCT al-aḥfādi (al-aḥ-FAA-di) the-grandchildren-GEN
57.21a أجبتها I-answered-her طبعاً of-course استخدميه use-it كما as تشائين you-wish
57.21b ajabtu-hā (a-JAB-tu-haa) I-answered-PAST.1SG-her ṭabʿan (ṬAB-ʿan) of-course-ACC.ADV istakhdimī-hi (is-takh-di-MEE-hi) use-IMP.F.SG-it-M kamā (KA-maa) as tashāʾīna (ta-shaa-ʾEE-na) you-wish-PRES.2F.SG
57.22a بعد after أسبوع week صارت she-became تستخدمه she-uses-it كل every صباح morning
57.22b baʿda (BA'-da) after-ACC usbūʿin (us-BOO-ʿin) week-GEN ṣārat (ṢAA-rat) became-PAST.3F.SG tastakhdimu-hu (tas-TAKH-di-mu-hu) she-uses-PRES.3F.SG-it-M kulla (KUL-la) every-ACC ṣabāḥin (ṣa-BAA-ḥin) morning-GEN
57.23a وكانت and-was تستخدم she-uses صوتها her-voice لتكتب so-that-she-writes الرسائل the-messages
57.23b wa-kānat (wa-KAA-nat) and-was-PAST.3F.SG tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) she-uses-PRES.3F.SG ṣawta-hā (ṢAW-ta-haa) voice-ACC-her li-taktuba (li-TAK-tu-ba) so-that-she-writes-SUBJ.3F.SG ar-rasāʾila (ar-ra-SAA-ʾi-la) the-messages-ACC
57.24a كتبت she-wrote لأبي to-my-father شكراً thanks على on الهدية the-gift أستخدمها I-use-it كل every يوم day
57.24b katabat (KA-ta-bat) she-wrote-PAST.3F.SG li-abī (li-A-bee) to-father-GEN-my shukran (SHUK-ran) thanks-ACC ʿalā (ʿa-LAA) on al-hadiyyati (al-ha-DIY-ya-ti) the-gift-F.GEN astakhdimu-hā (as-TAKH-di-mu-haa) I-use-PRES.1SG-it-F kulla (KUL-la) every-ACC yawmin (YAW-min) day-GEN
57.25a ضحك laughed أبي my-father وقال and-said ألم did-not تقولي you-say إنك that-you لن never تستخدميه you-use-it
57.25b ḍaḥika (ḌA-ḥi-ka) laughed-PAST.3M.SG abī (A-bee) father-NOM-my wa-qāla (wa-QAA-la) and-said-PAST.3M.SG a-lam (a-LAM) INTERROG-NEG.PAST taqūlī (ta-QOO-lee) say-JUSS.2F.SG innaki (in-NA-ki) that-you-F.SG lan (lan) NEG.FUT tastakhdimī-hi (tas-takh-di-MEE-hi) you-use-SUBJ.2F.SG-it-M
57.26a ضحكت laughed جدتي my-grandmother وقالت and-said الاستخدام the-using أسهل easier مما than-what ظننت I-thought
57.26b ḍaḥikat (ḌA-ḥi-kat) laughed-PAST.3F.SG jaddatī (jad-DA-tee) grandmother-NOM-my wa-qālat (wa-QAA-lat) and-said-PAST.3F.SG al-istikhdāmu (al-is-tikh-DAA-mu) the-using-NOM as-halu (AS-ha-lu) easier-NOM mimmā (mim-MAA) than-what ẓanantu (ẓa-NAN-tu) I-thought-PAST.1SG
57.27a صارت became جدتي my-grandmother مستخدمة a-user ماهرة skilled
57.27b ṣārat (ṢAA-rat) became-PAST.3F.SG jaddatī (jad-DA-tee) grandmother-NOM-my mustakhdimatan (mus-TAKH-di-ma-tan) user-F.ACC māhiratan (MAA-hi-ra-tan) skilled-F.ACC
57.28a واليوم and-today تستخدم she-uses جدتي my-grandmother الجهاز the-device لتتصل so-that-she-calls بنا with-us كل every مساء evening
57.28b wa-l-yawma (wal-YAW-ma) and-the-day-ACC.ADV tastakhdimu (tas-TAKH-di-mu) she-uses-PRES.3F.SG jaddatī (jad-DA-tee) grandmother-NOM-my al-jihāza (al-ji-HAA-za) the-device-ACC li-tattaṣila (li-tat-ta-ṢI-la) so-that-she-calls-SUBJ.3F.SG bi-nā (bi-NAA) with-us kulla (KUL-la) every-ACC masāʾin (ma-SAA-ʾin) evening-GEN
57.29a وتقول and-she-says لي to-me دائماً always استخدم use عقلك your-mind قبل before أن that تستخدم you-use الجهاز the-device
57.29b wa-taqūlu (wa-ta-QOO-lu) and-she-says-PRES.3F.SG lī (lee) to-me dāʾiman (DAA-ʾi-man) always-ACC.ADV istakhdim (is-TAKH-dim) use-IMP.M.SG ʿaqla-ka (ʿAQ-la-ka) mind-ACC-your-M.SG qabla (QAB-la) before-ACC an (an) that tastakhdima (tas-TAKH-di-ma) you-use-SUBJ.2M.SG al-jihāza (al-ji-HAA-za) the-device-ACC
57.30a فنضحك so-we-laugh جميعاً all ونستخدم and-we-use الجهاز the-device معاً together
57.30b fa-naḍḥaku (fa-NAḌ-ḥa-ku) so-we-laugh-PRES.1PL jamīʿan (ja-MEE-ʿan) all-ACC.ADV wa-nastakhdimu (wa-nas-TAKH-di-mu) and-we-use-PRES.1PL al-jihāza (al-ji-HAA-za) the-device-ACC maʿan (MA-ʿan) together-ACC.ADV
57.16 قالت جدتي عن الجهاز اللوحي: «لن أستخدمه أبداً». — qālat jaddatī ʿan al-jihāz al-lawḥī: "lan astakhdimahu abadan." — "My grandmother said of the tablet: 'I will never use it.'"
57.17 لكنني جلست بجانبها وقلت: «استخدميه معي خطوة خطوة». — lākinnanī jalastu bi-jānibihā wa-qultu: "istakhdimīhi maʿī khuṭwatan khuṭwatan." — "But I sat beside her and said: 'Use it with me, step by step.'"
57.18 استخدمت جدتي إصبعاً واحداً في البداية. — istakhdamat jaddatī iṣbaʿan wāḥidan fī al-bidāya. — "At first my grandmother used one finger."
57.19 ثم تعلمت كيف تستخدم الشاشة. — thumma taʿallamat kayfa tastakhdimu ash-shāsha. — "Then she learned how to use the screen."
57.20 سألتني: «هل يمكن أن أستخدمه لأرى صور الأحفاد؟» — saʾalatnī: "hal yumkinu an astakhdimahu li-arā ṣuwara al-aḥfād?" — "She asked me: 'Can I use it to see the photos of the grandchildren?'"
57.21 أجبتها: «طبعاً، استخدميه كما تشائين». — ajabtuhā: "ṭabʿan, istakhdimīhi kamā tashāʾīna." — "I answered her: 'Of course, use it as you wish.'"
57.22 بعد أسبوع صارت تستخدمه كل صباح. — baʿda usbūʿin ṣārat tastakhdimuhu kulla ṣabāḥin. — "After a week she began to use it every morning."
57.23 وكانت تستخدم صوتها لتكتب الرسائل. — wa-kānat tastakhdimu ṣawtahā li-taktuba ar-rasāʾil. — "And she used her voice to write the messages."
57.24 كتبت لأبي: «شكراً على الهدية، أستخدمها كل يوم». — katabat li-abī: "shukran ʿalā al-hadiyya, astakhdimuhā kulla yawmin." — "She wrote to my father: 'Thank you for the gift. I use it every day.'"
57.25 ضحك أبي وقال: «ألم تقولي إنك لن تستخدميه؟» — ḍaḥika abī wa-qāla: "a-lam taqūlī innaki lan tastakhdimīhi?" — "My father laughed and said: 'Didn't you say you would never use it?'"
57.26 ضحكت جدتي وقالت: «الاستخدام أسهل مما ظننت». — ḍaḥikat jaddatī wa-qālat: "al-istikhdām as-halu mimmā ẓanantu." — "My grandmother laughed and said: 'Using it is easier than I thought.'"
57.27 صارت جدتي مستخدمة ماهرة. — ṣārat jaddatī mustakhdimatan māhiratan. — "My grandmother became a skilled user."
57.28 واليوم تستخدم جدتي الجهاز لتتصل بنا كل مساء. — wa-l-yawma tastakhdimu jaddatī al-jihāz li-tattaṣila bi-nā kulla masāʾin. — "And today my grandmother uses the device to call us every evening."
57.29 وتقول لي دائماً: «استخدم عقلك قبل أن تستخدم الجهاز». — wa-taqūlu lī dāʾiman: "istakhdim ʿaqlaka qabla an tastakhdima al-jihāz." — "And she always tells me: 'Use your mind before you use the device.'" (to a man)
57.30 فنضحك جميعاً ونستخدم الجهاز معاً. — fa-naḍḥaku jamīʿan wa-nastakhdimu al-jihāz maʿan. — "So we all laugh, and we use the device together."
57.16 قالت جدتي عن الجهاز اللوحي: «لن أستخدمه أبداً».
57.17 لكنني جلست بجانبها وقلت: «استخدميه معي خطوة خطوة».
57.18 استخدمت جدتي إصبعاً واحداً في البداية.
57.19 ثم تعلمت كيف تستخدم الشاشة.
57.20 سألتني: «هل يمكن أن أستخدمه لأرى صور الأحفاد؟»
57.21 أجبتها: «طبعاً، استخدميه كما تشائين».
57.22 بعد أسبوع صارت تستخدمه كل صباح.
57.23 وكانت تستخدم صوتها لتكتب الرسائل.
57.24 كتبت لأبي: «شكراً على الهدية، أستخدمها كل يوم».
57.25 ضحك أبي وقال: «ألم تقولي إنك لن تستخدميه؟»
57.26 ضحكت جدتي وقالت: «الاستخدام أسهل مما ظننت».
57.27 صارت جدتي مستخدمة ماهرة.
57.28 واليوم تستخدم جدتي الجهاز لتتصل بنا كل مساء.
57.29 وتقول لي دائماً: «استخدم عقلك قبل أن تستخدم الجهاز».
57.30 فنضحك جميعاً ونستخدم الجهاز معاً.
- Who speaks to whom. The narrator is a grandchild ("I"), and the narrator's own verbs carry no gender. Every "you" said to the grandmother is feminine: استخدميه (57.17, 57.21), تشائين (57.21), تقولي (57.25), تستخدميه (57.25). In 57.29 the grandmother speaks to the narrator in the masculine (استخدم، عقلك، تستخدم): Arabic must choose, and this lesson chose a grandson. The English "you" does not show it. - The father and the gift. The tablet is the gift (الهدية, 57.24) of the narrator's father: the grandmother thanks him in 57.24, and he answers in 57.25. - لن + the subjunctive (57.16, 57.25). "Will never": لن أستخدمَه, لن تستخدميه. In 57.25, إنك (innaki) is إنّ + ـكِ, "that you (f.)," and the question ألم تقولي (a-lam taqūlī) is the question particle أ + لم + the jussive, in which the -na of تقولين falls away. - The feminine command with a suffix (57.17, 57.21). استخدمي (istakhdimī) + ـه (-hi) = استخدميه (istakhdimīhi): the long ī is kept, and the suffix takes the form -hi after it. - لِـ + the subjunctive (57.20, 57.23, 57.28). لأرى (li-arā), لتكتبَ (li-taktuba), لتتصلَ (li-tattaṣila): "so that I see, so that she writes, so that she calls." The subject is the same as that of the main verb, so a verb is enough, with no verbal noun needed (Section D, rule 6). - كيف + the present (57.19). "How to use": تعلمت كيف تستخدم, "she learned how she uses (how to use)." The present follows كيف with no أن. - صار + the present (57.22). "Began to": صارت تستخدمه (ṣārat tastakhdimuhu), literally "she became she-uses-it." - The verbal noun as a subject (57.26). الاستخدام (al-istikhdām), "the using," is the subject of a nominal sentence: الاستخدام أسهل. The comparative أسهل (as-hal), "easier," is followed by مما (mimmā, من + ما), "than what." - The participle as a noun (57.27). مستخدمة (mustakhdima), "a (female) user," is the feminine of مستخدم. It is the predicate of صارت, so it is accusative: مستخدمةً ماهرةً. - Pronouns for things (57.24). الهدية (the gift) is feminine, so "I use it" is أستخدمها (astakhdimuhā). - قبل أن (57.29). "Before," + a verb in the subjunctive: قبل أن تستخدمَ. As in Lesson 56, قبل أن always takes the subjunctive. - Time words. بعد أسبوع (57.22), "after a week," uses Lesson 56's word; كل صباح، كل يوم، كل مساء (57.22, 57.24, 57.28) are "every morning, every day, every evening," with كل in the accusative of time and the noun in the genitive.
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- IPA: /ʔistaxdama/ - ا (alif) with kasra = /ʔi/ at the start of a sentence; after a word it is silent: "wa-stakhdama," "fa-stakhdama." - س (sīn) = /s/. ْ (sukūn) = no vowel: the s closes the first syllable (is-). - ت (tāʾ) = /t/ and َ (fatḥa) = /a/: the second syllable is takh-, with the sukūn on the خ closing it. - خ (khāʾ) = /x/, a sound that has no English equivalent: the rough sound of Scottish loch or German Bach, made at the back of the mouth. - د (dāl) = /d/ and َ (fatḥa) = /a/; م (mīm) = /m/ and َ (fatḥa) = /a/. - Stress: is-TAKH-da-ma, on the heavy syllable takh-. The present is yas-TAKH-di-mu; the first-person past is is-takh-DAM-tu, with the stress moving onto the heavy syllable before the ending.
- خ /x/ in خدم (khadam, "servants") vs ق /q/ in قدم (qadam, "foot"): khāʾ is a rough, scraped breath, qāf a deep click at the uvula. - خ /x/ in خمس (khams, "five") vs ه /h/ in همس (hams, "whisper"): khāʾ is rough and scraped, hāʾ a plain breath. - يَسْتَخْدِمُ (yastakhdimu, "he uses") vs يُسْتَخْدَمُ (yustakhdamu, "is used"): the two vowels, ya and i against yu and a, are all that separate active from passive. - اِسْتِخْدَام (istikhdām, "use") vs اِسْتَخْدَمَ (istakhdama, "he used"): the vowels i and ā against a and a, with the stress on the last syllable (is-tikh-DAAM) in the noun.
- ع (ʿayn) /ʕ/ in جميعاً، معاً، أسبوع، إصبعاً، يمتنع: a voiced squeeze made low in the throat, not a glottal stop and not an h. - ق (qāf) /q/ in قلم، قديمة، قبل، قال، القوة: a k made at the uvula, deeper than English k. - ح (ḥāʾ) /ħ/ in الحاسوب، الملح، واحداً، ضحك: the whispered h from the throat. - The emphatics ص ط ض ظ in مصعد، الظهر، الطبخ، طبعاً، ضحك، صارت، صوتها، ظننت، ضد: tongue raised at the back, darkening the vowels. - ذ (dhāl) /ð/ in ماذا، هذه، هذا: like the th of English this.
Before sun letters the l of the article assimilates: السكر → as-sukkar, الشاشة → ash-shāsha, الطبخ → aṭ-ṭabkh, الظهر → aẓ-ẓuhr, الدولية → ad-dawliyya, التهديد → at-tahdīd, الرسائل → ar-rasāʾil. Before moon letters it does not: القلم → al-qalam, المفتاح → al-miftāḥ, الباب → al-bāb, الحاسوب → al-ḥāsūb, الهاتف → al-hātif, الجهاز → al-jihāz, الأحفاد → al-aḥfād, الاستخدام → al-istikhdām. After another word, the alif of the article and of the verb is silent: ثم استخدم, "thumma-stakhdama"; بعد الاستخدام, "baʿda-l-istikhdām."
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Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)