← Latin for Biologists and Gardeners — Botanical Latin
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Welcome back to the Latinum Institute Botanical Latin Reading Course. The full course index is available at https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
In this lesson we encounter one of the most essential verbs in all of Latin, and one with particular significance for botanical and biological description: possum, posse, potuī, meaning “to be able, can, may.” This irregular verb, formed from the adjective potis (”able, capable”) combined with the verb sum (”to be”), sits at rank 23 on the Dickinson College Core Vocabulary — making it one of the most frequently encountered words in all Latin literature.
Frequently Asked Question: What does possum mean in Latin?
Possum is the first person singular present active indicative of the Latin verb meaning “I am able, I can, I may.” Its infinitive form is posse (”to be able”), and its perfect stem is potu- (giving potuī, “I was able”). In botanical and biological texts, possum is indispensable for describing what plants, organisms, and natural processes are capable of doing — where a species may grow, how a structure can function, what conditions may prevail.
English speakers will recognize the concept of “may” as covering both possibility (”it may rain”) and permission (”you may enter”). Classical Latin possum covers primarily the possibility and capability senses. For permission, Latin more often uses licet (an impersonal verb meaning “it is permitted”). In botanical Latin, however, possum overwhelmingly expresses capability and potential — what a plant can do, where it can be found, how a structure can be used.
The verb is morphologically irregular: its present stem alternates between poss- (before forms of sum beginning with s-: possum, possumus, possunt, possem, possim, posse) and pot- (before forms beginning with e- or a vowel: potes, potest, potestis, potera, potui). This pattern — essentially pot- + sum with assimilation — is consistent once learned.
In the fifteen examples below, we will see possum used to describe the capabilities of plants, the potential of growing conditions, the possibility of botanical observations, and the capacity of natural structures. The genre section then applies these constructions to a field guide describing the habitat possibilities of various species.
Key Takeaways: -
Possum is an irregular verb meaning “to be able, can, may” — combining pot- with forms of sum -
It takes a complementary infinitive: crescere potest (”it can grow”), invenīrī possunt (”they can be found”) -
In botanical Latin, possum typically expresses natural capability or ecological possibility -
The present forms alternate between poss- (before s-) and pot- (before vowels) -
The perfect potuī follows second conjugation patterns: potuī, potuistī, potuit, potuimus, potuistis, potuērunt
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possum [ˈpɔs.sum] — I am able, I can (double s clearly pronounced)
potest [ˈpɔ.tɛst] — he/she/it is able, it can (note t before e, not ss)
possunt [ˈpɔs.sunt] — they are able, they can
posse [ˈpɔs.sɛ] — to be able (infinitive)
potuī [pɔ.ˈtu.iː] — I was able, I could
potestis [pɔ.ˈtɛs.tɪs] — you (plural) are able
possumus [ˈpɔs.su.mus] — we are able
possim [ˈpɔs.sɪm] — I may be able (present subjunctive)
possit [ˈpɔs.sɪt] — he/she/it may be able (present subjunctive)
possent [ˈpɔs.sɛnt] — they might be able (imperfect subjunctive)
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90.1a Rosa in umbrā crescere potest. 90.1b Rosa (ˈrɔ.sa) rose-NOM in (ɪn) in umbrā (ˈum.braː) shade-ABL crescere (ˈkrɛs.kɛ.rɛ) to-grow potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.2a Quercus alta fierī potest. 90.2b Quercus (ˈkwɛr.kus) oak-NOM alta (ˈal.ta) tall-NOM.F fierī (ˈfi.ɛ.riː) to-become potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.3a Herbae in saxīs crescere possunt. 90.3b Herbae (ˈhɛr.bae̯) herbs-NOM.PL in (ɪn) in saxīs (ˈsak.siːs) rocks-ABL.PL crescere (ˈkrɛs.kɛ.rɛ) to-grow possunt (ˈpɔs.sunt) are-able
90.4a Folia venēnum continēre possunt. 90.4b Folia (ˈfɔ.lɪ.a) leaves-NOM.PL venēnum (wɛ.ˈneː.num) poison-ACC continēre (kɔn.tɪ.ˈneː.rɛ) to-contain possunt (ˈpɔs.sunt) are-able
90.5a Sēmen sine aquā germinare nōn potest. 90.5b Sēmen (ˈseː.mɛn) seed-NOM sine (ˈsɪ.nɛ) without aquā (ˈa.kwaː) water-ABL germinare (gɛr.mɪ.ˈnaː.rɛ) to-germinate nōn (noːn) not potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.6a Fungī in terrā humidā et umbrōsā invenīrī possunt. 90.6b Fungī (ˈfun.giː) fungi-NOM.PL in (ɪn) in terrā (ˈtɛr.raː) ground-ABL humidā (ˈhu.mɪ.daː) moist-ABL.F et (ɛt) and umbrōsā (um.ˈbroː.saː) shady-ABL.F invenīrī (ɪn.wɛ.ˈniː.riː) to-be-found-PASS.INF possunt (ˈpɔs.sunt) are-able
90.7a Planta quae in rēgiōnibus calidīs crescit frīgus tolerāre nōn potest. 90.7b Planta (ˈplan.ta) plant-NOM quae (kwae̯) which-NOM.F in (ɪn) in rēgiōnibus (reː.gɪ.ˈoː.nɪ.bus) regions-ABL.PL calidīs (ˈka.lɪ.diːs) warm-ABL.PL crescit (ˈkrɛs.kɪt) grows frīgus (ˈfriː.gus) cold-ACC tolerāre (tɔ.lɛ.ˈraː.rɛ) to-tolerate nōn (noːn) not potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.8a Cortex arboris in medicinā ūtilis esse potest. 90.8b Cortex (ˈkɔr.tɛks) bark-NOM arboris (ˈar.bɔ.rɪs) of-tree-GEN in (ɪn) in medicinā (mɛ.dɪ.ˈkiː.naː) medicine-ABL ūtilis (ˈuː.tɪ.lɪs) useful-NOM esse (ˈɛs.sɛ) to-be potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.9a Rādīcēs sub terrā longē extendī possunt. 90.9b Rādīcēs (raː.ˈdiː.keːs) roots-NOM.PL sub (sub) under terrā (ˈtɛr.raː) earth-ABL longē (ˈlɔn.geː) far extendī (ɛks.ˈtɛn.diː) to-be-extended-PASS.INF possunt (ˈpɔs.sunt) are-able
90.10a Nūlla planta sine lūce sōlārī per longum tempus vīvere potest. 90.10b Nūlla (ˈnuːl.la) no-NOM.F planta (ˈplan.ta) plant-NOM sine (ˈsɪ.nɛ) without lūce (ˈluː.kɛ) light-ABL sōlārī (soː.ˈlaː.riː) solar-ABL per (pɛr) through longum (ˈlɔŋ.gum) long-ACC tempus (ˈtɛm.pus) time-ACC vīvere (ˈwiː.wɛ.rɛ) to-live potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.11a Vītis quae in Italiā nascitur ad praecipuam amplitūdinem exīre potest. 90.11b Vītis (ˈwiː.tɪs) vine-NOM quae (kwae̯) which-NOM.F in (ɪn) in Italiā (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.aː) Italy-ABL nascitur (ˈnas.kɪ.tur) is-born/grows-PASS ad (ad) to praecipuam (prae̯.ˈkɪ.pu.am) remarkable-ACC.F amplitūdinem (am.plɪ.ˈtuː.dɪ.nɛm) size-ACC exīre (ɛk.ˈsiː.rɛ) to-go-out/reach potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.12a Multa genera plantārum in silvīs tropicīs invenīrī possunt quae alibī nōn crescunt. 90.12b Multa (ˈmul.ta) many-NOM.PL.N genera (ˈgɛ.nɛ.ra) kinds-NOM.PL plantārum (plan.ˈtaː.rum) of-plants-GEN.PL in (ɪn) in silvīs (ˈsɪl.wiːs) forests-ABL.PL tropicīs (ˈtrɔ.pɪ.kiːs) tropical-ABL.PL invenīrī (ɪn.wɛ.ˈniː.riː) to-be-found-PASS.INF possunt (ˈpɔs.sunt) are-able quae (kwae̯) which-NOM.PL.N alibī (ˈa.lɪ.biː) elsewhere nōn (noːn) not crescunt (ˈkrɛs.kunt) grow
90.13a Botanicus perītus speciem novam ex foliōrum formā et flōrum strūctūrā agnōscere potest. 90.13b Botanicus (bɔ.ˈta.nɪ.kus) botanist-NOM perītus (pɛ.ˈriː.tus) skilled-NOM speciem (ˈspɛ.kɪ.ɛm) species-ACC novam (ˈnɔ.wam) new-ACC.F ex (ɛks) from foliōrum (fɔ.lɪ.ˈoː.rum) of-leaves-GEN.PL formā (ˈfɔr.maː) shape-ABL et (ɛt) and flōrum (ˈfloː.rum) of-flowers-GEN.PL strūctūrā (struːk.ˈtuː.raː) structure-ABL agnōscere (ag.ˈnoːs.kɛ.rɛ) to-recognize potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
90.14a Plīnius scrībit Italiam omnium arborum parentem peculiārem vidērī posse. 90.14b Plīnius (ˈpliː.nɪ.us) Pliny-NOM scrībit (ˈskriː.bɪt) writes Italiam (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.am) Italy-ACC omnium (ˈɔm.nɪ.um) of-all-GEN.PL arborum (ˈar.bɔ.rum) of-trees-GEN.PL parentem (pa.ˈrɛn.tɛm) parent-ACC peculiārem (pɛ.ku.lɪ.ˈaː.rɛm) special-ACC vidērī (wɪ.ˈdeː.riː) to-seem-PASS.INF posse (ˈpɔs.sɛ) to-be-able-INF
90.15a Sī planta in solō aridō et paupere posita est, magnōs flōrēs ferre nōn potest, sed sī in hortum fērtīlem trānsferātur, mīrābiliter flōrēre potest. 90.15b Sī (siː) if planta (ˈplan.ta) plant-NOM in (ɪn) in solō (ˈsɔ.loː) soil-ABL aridō (ˈa.rɪ.doː) dry-ABL et (ɛt) and paupere (ˈpau̯.pɛ.rɛ) poor-ABL.N posita (ˈpɔ.sɪ.ta) placed-NOM.F est (ɛst) is magnōs (ˈmaɡ.noːs) large-ACC.PL.M flōrēs (ˈfloː.reːs) flowers-ACC.PL ferre (ˈfɛr.rɛ) to-bear nōn (noːn) not potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able sed (sɛd) but sī (siː) if in (ɪn) into hortum (ˈhɔr.tum) garden-ACC fērtīlem (feːr.ˈtiː.lɛm) fertile-ACC trānsferātur (traːns.fɛ.ˈraː.tur) it-be-transferred-SUBJ.PASS mīrābiliter (miː.ˈraː.bɪ.lɪ.tɛr) wonderfully flōrēre (floː.ˈreː.rɛ) to-flower potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able
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90.1 Rosa in umbrā crescere potest. “The rose can grow in shade.”
90.2 Quercus alta fierī potest. “The oak can become tall.”
90.3 Herbae in saxīs crescere possunt. “Herbs can grow among rocks.”
90.4 Folia venēnum continēre possunt. “Leaves can contain poison.”
90.5 Sēmen sine aquā germinare nōn potest. “A seed cannot germinate without water.”
90.6 Fungī in terrā humidā et umbrōsā invenīrī possunt. “Fungi can be found in moist and shady ground.”
90.7 Planta quae in rēgiōnibus calidīs crescit frīgus tolerāre nōn potest. “A plant which grows in warm regions cannot tolerate cold.”
90.8 Cortex arboris in medicinā ūtilis esse potest. “The bark of a tree can be useful in medicine.”
90.9 Rādīcēs sub terrā longē extendī possunt. “Roots can extend far beneath the earth.”
90.10 Nūlla planta sine lūce sōlārī per longum tempus vīvere potest. “No plant can live for a long time without solar light.”
90.11 Vītis quae in Italiā nascitur ad praecipuam amplitūdinem exīre potest. “The vine which grows in Italy can reach a remarkable size.”
90.12 Multa genera plantārum in silvīs tropicīs invenīrī possunt quae alibī nōn crescunt. “Many kinds of plants can be found in tropical forests which do not grow elsewhere.”
90.13 Botanicus perītus speciem novam ex foliōrum formā et flōrum strūctūrā agnōscere potest. “A skilled botanist can recognize a new species from the shape of the leaves and the structure of the flowers.”
90.14 Plīnius scrībit Italiam omnium arborum parentem peculiārem vidērī posse. “Pliny writes that Italy may seem to be the special parent of all trees.”
90.15 Sī planta in solō aridō et paupere posita est, magnōs flōrēs ferre nōn potest, sed sī in hortum fērtīlem trānsferātur, mīrābiliter flōrēre potest. “If a plant is placed in dry and poor soil, it cannot bear large flowers, but if it is transplanted into a fertile garden, it can flower wonderfully.”
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90.1 Rosa in umbrā crescere potest.
90.2 Quercus alta fierī potest.
90.3 Herbae in saxīs crescere possunt.
90.4 Folia venēnum continēre possunt.
90.5 Sēmen sine aquā germinare nōn potest.
90.6 Fungī in terrā humidā et umbrōsā invenīrī possunt.
90.7 Planta quae in rēgiōnibus calidīs crescit frīgus tolerāre nōn potest.
90.8 Cortex arboris in medicinā ūtilis esse potest.
90.9 Rādīcēs sub terrā longē extendī possunt.
90.10 Nūlla planta sine lūce sōlārī per longum tempus vīvere potest.
90.11 Vītis quae in Italiā nascitur ad praecipuam amplitūdinem exīre potest.
90.12 Multa genera plantārum in silvīs tropicīs invenīrī possunt quae alibī nōn crescunt.
90.13 Botanicus perītus speciem novam ex foliōrum formā et flōrum strūctūrā agnōscere potest.
90.14 Plīnius scrībit Italiam omnium arborum parentem peculiārem vidērī posse.
90.15 Sī planta in solō aridō et paupere posita est, magnōs flōrēs ferre nōn potest, sed sī in hortum fērtīlem trānsferātur, mīrābiliter flōrēre potest.
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These are the grammar rules for possum, posse, potuī in Botanical Latin:
Formation of Possum
The verb possum is a compound of the adjective potis (”able, capable”) and the verb sum (”I am”). Understanding this etymology makes the conjugation transparent. When the following form of sum begins with the letter s, the stem becomes poss- (the t of pot- assimilates to the s). When the following form begins with a vowel (typically e), the stem remains pot-. Thus:
Present indicative active: possum (I can), potes (you can), potest (he/she/it can), possumus (we can), potestis (you all can), possunt (they can).
Imperfect indicative active: poteram (I was able/could), poterās, poterat, poterāmus, poterātis, poterant.
Future indicative active: poterō (I will be able), poteris, poterit, poterimus, poteritis, poterunt.
Perfect indicative active: potuī (I was able/could), potuistī, potuit, potuimus, potuistis, potuērunt.
Pluperfect indicative active: potueram (I had been able).
Future perfect indicative active: potuerō (I will have been able).
Present subjunctive active: possim (I may be able), possīs, possit, possīmus, possītis, possint.
Imperfect subjunctive active: possem (I might be able), possēs, posset, possēmus, possētis, possent.
Perfect subjunctive active: potuerim. Pluperfect subjunctive active: potuissem.
Infinitives: present posse (to be able); perfect potuisse (to have been able). There is no future infinitive, no passive forms, no gerund, no supine, and no imperative.
The present participle potēns exists but is used almost exclusively as an adjective meaning “powerful, potent” (English “potent” derives from it). It is not normally used as a true verbal participle.
How Possum Works in Sentences
Possum always takes a complementary infinitive — that is, it needs another verb in the infinitive form to complete its meaning. The pattern is: subject + (object/modifier of infinitive) + infinitive + form of possum. In Latin, the infinitive and the form of possum typically come at or near the end of the clause, with the infinitive directly before possum:
Rosa crescere potest — “The rose can grow” (literally: “the rose to-grow is-able”)
Folia venēnum continēre possunt — “The leaves can contain poison”
The subject of possum is also the understood subject of the infinitive. When the infinitive is passive, the construction expresses what can be done to something:
Fungī invenīrī possunt — “Fungi can be found” (literally: “fungi to-be-found are-able”)
Negation with Possum
Negation uses nōn placed before potest/possunt: nōn potest (”cannot, is not able”). In botanical descriptions this is common for expressing ecological limitations: frīgus tolerāre nōn potest (”cannot tolerate cold”).
Possum in Indirect Statement
When possum appears inside an indirect statement (accusative + infinitive construction), it takes its own infinitive form posse: Plīnius scrībit Italiam parentem vidērī posse — “Pliny writes that Italy may seem to be a parent.” Here posse is the infinitive of possum, and vidērī is the passive infinitive of videō meaning “to seem.”
Common Patterns in Botanical Latin
The most frequent patterns with possum in botanical writing are:
The capability description: [Subject] + [infinitive] + potest/possunt — describing what a plant or structure can do. Example: Rādīcēs longē extendī possunt (”roots can extend far”).
The discovery/location pattern: [Subject] + invenīrī + potest/possunt + [location phrase] — describing where something can be found. Example: Fungī in terrā humidā invenīrī possunt (”fungi can be found in moist ground”).
The negative limitation: [Subject] + [infinitive] + nōn potest — describing what something cannot do. Example: Sēmen sine aquā germinare nōn potest (”a seed cannot germinate without water”).
The potential subjunctive: possit/possint — expressing what might be possible. This is common in more literary or speculative passages.
Common Mistakes for English Speakers
English speakers should be alert to several potential errors. First, do not confuse possum with pōnō (”I place, I put”) — they are entirely different verbs despite superficial similarity. Second, remember that possum has no passive voice; if you need to express “can be grown,” use the passive infinitive: crescī potest (though in practice serī potest, from serō “to sow/plant,” is more natural). Third, remember that possum never takes a direct object — it only takes an infinitive. You cannot say possum rosam to mean “I can [do something with] a rose”; you need an infinitive: rosam vidēre possum (”I can see the rose”).
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Possum and its forms permeate all registers of Latin — from the most colloquial speech preserved in Plautus’s comedies to the most refined prose of Cicero, from imperial edicts to medieval botanical manuals. In botanical and scientific Latin specifically, possum serves as the primary vehicle for expressing natural capability and ecological potential.
In the tradition of Roman agricultural and botanical writing — represented by Cato the Elder (Dē Agrī Cultūrā, c. 160 BCE), Varro (Rēs Rūsticae, 37 BCE), Columella (Dē Rē Rūsticā, c. 60 CE), and above all Pliny the Elder (Nātūrālis Historia, 77 CE) — possum appears constantly in descriptions of what plants can grow where, what soils can support which crops, and what yields can be expected. Pliny’s Natural History, our richest ancient source for botanical knowledge, uses potest and possunt hundreds of times across its botanical books (XII–XIX).
When post-classical and Neo-Latin botanical writers such as Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), and their successors composed plant descriptions, they inherited and continued this usage. In Linnaean botanical Latin — which remains the standard for taxonomic description to this day — potest and possunt appear in habitat descriptions, morphological notes, and ecological observations.
The distinction between possum (capability/possibility) and licet (permission) is primarily relevant in legal and social contexts. In botanical Latin, where we are dealing with natural capacity rather than social permission, possum is overwhelmingly preferred. A plant “can” grow in shade — this is a statement about its natural capability, not about anyone’s permission.
The English derivative “potent” (from the present participle potēns) preserves the sense of capability and power. Other English words from this root include “potency,” “potential,” “potentate,” “impotent,” and “omnipotent” — all carrying the sense of power and ability that lies at the heart of possum.
In modern botanical Latin descriptions published in journals, the form potest remains in active use: Haec species in altitūdinibus 2000–3000 metrōrum invenīrī potest (”This species can be found at altitudes of 2000–3000 metres”).
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Source: Pliny the Elder, Nātūrālis Historia XIV.1 and XIV.8 (77 CE)
Pliny opens his discussion of vines and wine (Book XIV) with a magnificent statement about Italy’s botanical richness that uses potest and possit prominently.
Part F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Externae arborēs indocilēsque nascī alibī quam ubī coepēre et quae in aliēnās nōn commeant terrās hactenus ferē sunt, licetque iam dē commūnibus loquī, quārum omnium peculiāris parēns vidērī potest Italia. F.1b Externae (ɛks.ˈtɛr.nae̯) foreign-NOM.PL.F arborēs (ar.ˈbɔ.reːs) trees-NOM.PL indocilēsque (ɪn.dɔ.ˈkɪ.leːs.kwɛ) and-unable-to-be-taught-NOM.PL nascī (ˈnas.kiː) to-be-born/grow-PASS.INF alibī (ˈa.lɪ.biː) elsewhere quam (kwam) than ubī (ˈu.biː) where coepēre (koe̯.ˈpeː.rɛ) they-began-PERF et (ɛt) and quae (kwae̯) which-NOM.PL.F in (ɪn) into aliēnās (a.lɪ.ˈeː.naːs) foreign-ACC.PL.F nōn (noːn) not commeant (kɔm.ˈmɛ.ant) travel-to-3PL.PRES terrās (ˈtɛr.raːs) lands-ACC.PL hactenus (ˈhak.tɛ.nus) up-to-now ferē (ˈfɛ.reː) mostly sunt (sunt) are licetque (ˈlɪ.kɛt.kwɛ) and-it-is-permitted iam (jam) now dē (deː) about commūnibus (kɔm.ˈmuː.nɪ.bus) common-ABL.PL loquī (ˈlɔ.kwiː) to-speak-DEPONENT.INF quārum (ˈkwaː.rum) of-which-GEN.PL.F omnium (ˈɔm.nɪ.um) of-all-GEN.PL peculiāris (pɛ.ku.lɪ.ˈaː.rɪs) special-NOM parēns (ˈpa.reːns) parent-NOM vidērī (wɪ.ˈdeː.riː) to-seem-PASS.INF potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able Italia (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.a) Italy-NOM
F.2a Unde autem potius incipiāmus quam ā vītibus? quārum prīncipātus in tantum peculiāris Italiae est, ut vel hōc ūnō omnia gentium vīcisse etiam odōrifera possit vidērī bona. F.2b Unde (ˈun.dɛ) from-where autem (ˈau̯.tɛm) however/moreover potius (ˈpɔ.tɪ.us) rather incipiāmus (ɪn.kɪ.pɪ.ˈaː.mus) should-we-begin-SUBJ quam (kwam) than ā (aː) from vītibus (ˈwiː.tɪ.bus) vines-ABL.PL quārum (ˈkwaː.rum) of-which-GEN.PL.F prīncipātus (priːn.kɪ.ˈpaː.tus) pre-eminence-NOM in (ɪn) to tantum (ˈtan.tum) such-a-degree peculiāris (pɛ.ku.lɪ.ˈaː.rɪs) special-NOM Italiae (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.ae̯) of-Italy-GEN est (ɛst) is ut (ut) that vel (wɛl) even hōc (hoːk) this-ABL.N ūnō (ˈuː.noː) one-ABL.N omnia (ˈɔm.nɪ.a) all-ACC.PL.N gentium (ˈgɛn.tɪ.um) of-nations-GEN.PL vīcisse (wiː.ˈkis.sɛ) to-have-conquered-PERF.INF etiam (ˈɛ.tɪ.am) even odōrifera (ɔ.doː.ˈrɪ.fɛ.ra) fragrant-ACC.PL.N possit (ˈpɔs.sɪt) may-be-able-SUBJ vidērī (wɪ.ˈdeː.riː) to-seem-PASS.INF bona (ˈbɔ.na) goods-ACC.PL.N
Part F-B: Text and Translation
Externae arborēs indocilēsque nascī alibī quam ubī coepēre et quae in aliēnās nōn commeant terrās hactenus ferē sunt, licetque iam dē commūnibus loquī, quārum omnium peculiāris parēns vidērī potest Italia. → “The foreign trees, unable to grow elsewhere than where they first began, and which do not travel to other lands, have been dealt with up to this point; and now it is permitted to speak of those held in common — of all of which Italy may seem to be the special parent.”
Unde autem potius incipiāmus quam ā vītibus? quārum prīncipātus in tantum peculiāris Italiae est, ut vel hōc ūnō omnia gentium vīcisse etiam odōrifera possit vidērī bona. → “But from where should we rather begin than from the vines? Their pre-eminence belongs so especially to Italy that by this one thing alone she may seem to have conquered all the goods of every nation, even the fragrant ones.”
— Pliny the Elder, Nātūrālis Historia XIV.1, XIV.8 (77 CE)
Part F-C: Original Latin Text Only
Externae arborēs indocilēsque nascī alibī quam ubī coepēre et quae in aliēnās nōn commeant terrās hactenus ferē sunt, licetque iam dē commūnibus loquī, quārum omnium peculiāris parēns vidērī potest Italia.
Unde autem potius incipiāmus quam ā vītibus? quārum prīncipātus in tantum peculiāris Italiae est, ut vel hōc ūnō omnia gentium vīcisse etiam odōrifera possit vidērī bona.
Part F-D: Grammar Commentary
This magnificent passage from the opening of Pliny’s Book XIV (on vines and wine) demonstrates two key uses of possum in botanical Latin:
In the first passage, vidērī potest is the present indicative — “may seem” or “can seem.” The construction is: parēns vidērī potest Italia — literally “parent to-seem is-able Italy” = “Italy can seem to be the parent.” Note how vidērī (passive infinitive of videō, meaning “to seem”) serves as the complementary infinitive of potest. The word order places potest at the emphatic final position before the subject Italia, which is dramatically delayed to the very end of the sentence.
In the second passage, possit vidērī uses the present subjunctive — “may seem” in a result clause introduced by ut. The ut...possit construction (with subjunctive) expresses a result or consequence: Italy’s pre-eminence in vines is so great (in tantum) that (ut) she may seem (possit vidērī) to have conquered all the goods of every nation. The infinitival chain here is remarkable: possit vidērī vīcisse — “may seem to have conquered” — three verbal forms working together.
The word indocilēs (”unteachable, unable to be trained”) is a botanical metaphor: trees that cannot be “taught” to grow elsewhere. Combined with the enclitic -que (indocilēsque), it modifies arborēs. Pliny’s botanical vocabulary frequently personifies plants in this way.
The genitive plural gentium (”of nations”) modifies bona (”goods”), while odōrifera (”fragrance-bearing, fragrant”) is an adjective modifying bona — referring to the aromatic goods (spices, perfumes) of eastern nations that Italy’s vine surpasses.
Part F-E: Literary and Contextual Commentary
Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plīnius Secundus, 23–79 CE) composed his monumental Nātūrālis Historia in 37 books, dedicating Books XII through XIX to botany — trees, cultivated plants, grains, and medicinal herbs. He perished during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, a victim of the very natural forces he spent his life cataloguing.
Book XIV specifically treats vines and viticulture. The opening section, from which our passage is drawn, transitions from exotic foreign trees (Books XII–XIII) to the trees and plants common to Italy and the Mediterranean world. Pliny’s patriotic pride in Italy’s botanical richness — especially its vines — is evident in the bold claim that Italy may seem to be the special parent (peculiāris parēns vidērī potest) of all shared trees.
The rhetorical question Unde potius incipiāmus quam ā vītibus? (”Where should we begin sooner than with the vines?”) is a deliberative subjunctive — a question about what should be done — and launches Pliny into what will be an extensive treatment of vine varieties, wine production, and the cultural history of Roman viticulture.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
The following fifteen examples form a connected text simulating entries from a botanical field guide, describing where various plants can be found and what they can do, using possum throughout.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text Part F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Externae arborēs indocilēsque nascī alibī quam ubī coepēre et quae in aliēnās nōn commeant terrās hactenus ferē sunt, licetque iam dē commūnibus loquī, quārum omnium peculiāris parēns vidērī potest Italia. F.1b Externae (ɛks.ˈtɛr.nae̯) foreign-NOM.PL.F arborēs (ar.ˈbɔ.reːs) trees-NOM.PL indocilēsque (ɪn.dɔ.ˈkɪ.leːs.kwɛ) and-unable-to-be-taught-NOM.PL nascī (ˈnas.kiː) to-be-born/grow-PASS.INF alibī (ˈa.lɪ.biː) elsewhere quam (kwam) than ubī (ˈu.biː) where coepēre (koe̯.ˈpeː.rɛ) they-began-PERF et (ɛt) and quae (kwae̯) which-NOM.PL.F in (ɪn) into aliēnās (a.lɪ.ˈeː.naːs) foreign-ACC.PL.F nōn (noːn) not commeant (kɔm.ˈmɛ.ant) travel-to-3PL.PRES terrās (ˈtɛr.raːs) lands-ACC.PL hactenus (ˈhak.tɛ.nus) up-to-now ferē (ˈfɛ.reː) mostly sunt (sunt) are licetque (ˈlɪ.kɛt.kwɛ) and-it-is-permitted iam (jam) now dē (deː) about commūnibus (kɔm.ˈmuː.nɪ.bus) common-ABL.PL loquī (ˈlɔ.kwiː) to-speak-DEPONENT.INF quārum (ˈkwaː.rum) of-which-GEN.PL.F omnium (ˈɔm.nɪ.um) of-all-GEN.PL peculiāris (pɛ.ku.lɪ.ˈaː.rɪs) special-NOM parēns (ˈpa.reːns) parent-NOM vidērī (wɪ.ˈdeː.riː) to-seem-PASS.INF potest (ˈpɔ.tɛst) is-able Italia (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.a) Italy-NOM
F.2a Unde autem potius incipiāmus quam ā vītibus? quārum prīncipātus in tantum peculiāris Italiae est, ut vel hōc ūnō omnia gentium vīcisse etiam odōrifera possit vidērī bona. F.2b Unde (ˈun.dɛ) from-where autem (ˈau̯.tɛm) however/moreover potius (ˈpɔ.tɪ.us) rather incipiāmus (ɪn.kɪ.pɪ.ˈaː.mus) should-we-begin-SUBJ quam (kwam) than ā (aː) from vītibus (ˈwiː.tɪ.bus) vines-ABL.PL quārum (ˈkwaː.rum) of-which-GEN.PL.F prīncipātus (priːn.kɪ.ˈpaː.tus) pre-eminence-NOM in (ɪn) to tantum (ˈtan.tum) such-a-degree peculiāris (pɛ.ku.lɪ.ˈaː.rɪs) special-NOM Italiae (ɪ.ˈta.lɪ.ae̯) of-Italy-GEN est (ɛst) is ut (ut) that vel (wɛl) even hōc (hoːk) this-ABL.N ūnō (ˈuː.noː) one-ABL.N omnia (ˈɔm.nɪ.a) all-ACC.PL.N gentium (ˈgɛn.tɪ.um) of-nations-GEN.PL vīcisse (wiː.ˈkis.sɛ) to-have-conquered-PERF.INF etiam (ˈɛ.tɪ.am) even odōrifera (ɔ.doː.ˈrɪ.fɛ.ra) fragrant-ACC.PL.N possit (ˈpɔs.sɪt) may-be-able-SUBJ vidērī (wɪ.ˈdeː.riː) to-seem-PASS.INF bona (ˈbɔ.na) goods-ACC.PL.N