← Engels vir Afrikaanssprekendes
Introduction: In this third lesson we study "and", the third most frequent word in English. "And" is a conjunction: a small word that joins words, phrases and sentences of the same kind. "Bread and butter", "You and I", "He opens the door and walks in", "It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea".
Afrikaans has the same word, en, and an Afrikaans speaker starts very well: in nearly every sentence where English has "and", Afrikaans has en, in the same place. Like en, "and" never changes. It has no plural, no gender and no ending. English "and" has three letters and a final d that Afrikaans en has lost (see Etymology); that d is the first small difficulty. The others are few, and this lesson is about them.
The lesson is mostly about the places where the two languages part:
- Two things joined by "and" are plural, so the verb is plural: Lize and Daniel are in the garden. English must choose are, where Afrikaans has is for every subject (Lesson 2). - English often needs "and" between two verbs where Afrikaans puts them side by side: Come and see (Afrikaans Kom kyk), Go and ask your mother (Gaan vra jou ma). - In numbers English says the tens first, with no "and": twenty-five. Afrikaans says the units first: vyfentwintig, "five-and-twenty". English does use "and" after the hundreds: a hundred and five (Afrikaans honderd en vyf). - Punctuation: English puts a comma before "and" when it joins two sentences that each have their own subject, but not when it joins two verbs of the same subject. - The sound is different: English "and" has the vowel of "cat" and a voiced d, and in a normal sentence it is weak, /ən/ or /n/.
English uses "and":
- to join two words of the same kind: "bread and butter", "black and white", "tired and hungry" - to join two or more things in a list; the last two are joined by "and": "bread, milk and eggs" - to join two verbs of one subject: "She opens the door and walks in." - to join two full sentences: "It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea." - to say what comes next in a story: "I bought bread, and then I went home." - to add a question to what was said: "And you?" (Afrikaans En jy?) - in numbers over a hundred and in sums of money: "a hundred and five", "forty rand and fifty cents" - in fixed pairs: "ladies and gentlemen", "now and then", "to and fro" - between two verbs, after "come", "go" and "wait": "Come and see." (Afrikaans has no en here.)
Etymology: "and" comes from the Old English word and, also written ond. It is an old Germanic word, and the same word is German und, Dutch en and Afrikaans en. English and German kept the last sound, the d, but in Dutch the old ending wore away to en, and Afrikaans took en from Dutch. So an Afrikaans learner has to restore a sound that the Afrikaans word has lost. Do not confuse "and" with the small word "an" (an apple): an is the article, and is the conjunction. The sign & is the "ampersand", which is "and" written as one sign (see Part E).
What does "and" mean in Afrikaans? Nearly always en. The few exceptions are the ones in this lesson: in Come and see Afrikaans uses no word at all, and in numbers under a hundred Afrikaans uses en where English uses a hyphen (vyfentwintig, "twenty-five").
Key Takeaways:
- "And" never changes, just like en: bread and butter, Lize and Daniel, to read and to write. - Two things joined by "and" take a plural verb: Lize and Daniel are in the garden, not "Lize and Daniel is". - Where Afrikaans puts two verbs together (Kom kyk), English needs "and": Come and see. - In a list, put commas between the items and "and" before the last: bread, milk and eggs. Put a comma before "and" between two full sentences with different subjects. - In numbers the tens come first: twenty-five, not "five and twenty". After the hundreds, use "and": a hundred and five. - Say /ænd/ with the vowel of "cat" and a voiced d, but usually in a sentence the word is weak: /ən/. Never "end" /end/.
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Pronunciation Guide:
and — /ænd/ when it is stressed, /ənd/ or /ən/ when it is weak, and /n/ when it is very weak, in fast speech: bread and butter /ˌbred ən ˈbʌtə/, fish and chips /ˌfɪʃ ən ˈtʃɪps/, you and I /ju ən ˈaɪ/, black and white /ˌblæk ən ˈwaɪt/. The strong form /ænd/ is used when the word is said alone or with emphasis: "And?" /ænd/, "Lize and Daniel, not Lize or Daniel."
The vowel of the strong form, /æ/, is the vowel of cat /kæt/ and hand /hænd/. It is more open than Afrikaans e /ɛ/. Afrikaans speakers often replace it with /ɛ/, which gives "end" /end/. "End" is another word, so for the strong form keep the mouth more open, as for "cat".
The final d is voiced: /d/, with the voice in the throat. Afrikaans does not voice a consonant at the end of a word, so Afrikaans hand is said hant, and a learner may say "ant" for "and". Say the d with voice, as in hand /hænd/. But note that English speakers often leave out the d altogether when the next word begins with a consonant: bread 'n' butter /bred ən ˈbʌtə/. That is natural. What is not natural is a clear, strong "and" in the middle of a list. Let the small word shrink and run into the next word, as the Afrikaans 'n does in a quick sentence.
The weak vowel /ə/ is the same short vowel as in Afrikaans 'n /ə/ and in the prefix ge-. Before a vowel sound the weak form usually gets a link: you and I /ju ən ˈaɪ/, eggs and ham /ˌeɡz ən ˈhæm/.
Do not confuse "and" with the article "an" /æn/, /ən/ (an apple): the article ends in n, and the conjunction in nd. In writing, both are always spelled in full.
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Part A (English and Afrikaans text, word by word):
3.1 Bread brood and en butter botter.
3.2 You jy and en I ek.
3.3 Black swart and en white wit.
3.4 Come kom and - see kyk.
3.5 My my mother ma and en father pa.
3.6 Lize Lize and en Daniel Daniel are is in in the die garden tuin.
3.7 I ek have het a 'n cat kat and en a 'n dog hond.
3.8 He hy opens maak-oop the die door deur and en walks stap in in.
3.9 We ons eat eet bread brood and en drink drink tea tee every elke morning oggend.
3.10 Bread brood and en milk melk are is on op the die table tafel.
3.11 Ladies dames and en gentlemen here, welcome welkom to in Cape-Town Kaapstad.
3.12 My my brother broer is is twenty-five vyfentwintig and en my my sister suster is is twelve twaalf.
3.13 It dit is is hot warm today vandag, and en the die children kinders are-swimming swem in in the die sea see.
3.14 Daniel Daniel and en Lize Lize sit sit under onder the die tree boom and en talk praat about oor the die lesson les.
3.15 I ek bought het-gekoop bread brood, milk melk and en eggs eiers, and en then toe I ek went het-gegaan home huis-toe.
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Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Afrikaans translation):
3.1 Bread and butter. Brood en botter.
3.2 You and I. Jy en ek.
3.3 Black and white. Swart en wit.
3.4 Come and see. Kom kyk.
3.5 My mother and father. My ma en pa.
3.6 Lize and Daniel are in the garden. Lize en Daniel is in die tuin.
3.7 I have a cat and a dog. Ek het 'n kat en 'n hond.
3.8 He opens the door and walks in. Hy maak die deur oop en stap in.
3.9 We eat bread and drink tea every morning. Ons eet elke oggend brood en drink tee.
3.10 Bread and milk are on the table. Brood en melk is op die tafel.
3.11 Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Cape Town. Dames en here, welkom in Kaapstad.
3.12 My brother is twenty-five and my sister is twelve. My broer is vyfentwintig en my suster is twaalf.
3.13 It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea. Dit is vandag warm, en die kinders swem in die see.
3.14 Daniel and Lize sit under the tree and talk about the lesson. Daniel en Lize sit onder die boom en praat oor die les.
3.15 I bought bread, milk and eggs, and then I went home. Ek het brood, melk en eiers gekoop, en toe het ek huis toe gegaan.
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Part C (English text only):
3.1 Bread and butter.
3.2 You and I.
3.3 Black and white.
3.4 Come and see.
3.5 My mother and father.
3.6 Lize and Daniel are in the garden.
3.7 I have a cat and a dog.
3.8 He opens the door and walks in.
3.9 We eat bread and drink tea every morning.
3.10 Bread and milk are on the table.
3.11 Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Cape Town.
3.12 My brother is twenty-five and my sister is twelve.
3.13 It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea.
3.14 Daniel and Lize sit under the tree and talk about the lesson.
3.15 I bought bread, milk and eggs, and then I went home.
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Part D (Grammar explanation):
These are the grammar rules for "and" in English:
1. What "and" joins. "And" joins words, phrases and sentences of the same kind: two nouns (Bread and butter, 3.1), two pronouns (You and I, 3.2), two adjectives (Black and white, 3.3), two phrases (a cat and a dog, 3.7), two verbs (opens the door and walks in, 3.8) and two full sentences (It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea, 3.13). In all of these Afrikaans en is in the same place. "And" never changes its form, and it is never joined to the next word.
2. Lists. When three or more things are joined, English puts a comma between the items and "and" before the last one: I bought bread, milk and eggs (3.15). Afrikaans does the same: brood, melk en eiers. Do not put "and" between every item ("bread and milk and eggs") unless you want to be slow and dramatic. Many American writers also put a comma before the last "and" (bread, milk, and eggs): this is called the serial comma. British English, which South African English follows, usually leaves it out, but it is not wrong; just be consistent in one text.
3. Two subjects with "and": a plural verb. Two things joined by "and" are two, so the verb is plural: Lize and Daniel are in the garden (3.6), Bread and milk are on the table (3.10), My mother and father are at home. In the past: Lize and Daniel were. Afrikaans is and was do not change (Lesson 2, Part D, rules 1 and 2), and so an Afrikaans speaker must watch the verb: never "Lize and Daniel is", never "The bread and the milk is".
4. Pronouns. After "and" the pronoun has the same form as when it stands alone: as a subject it is "I", he, she, we, they: You and I are friends (3.2), Lize and I are friends. As an object or after a preposition it is "me", him, her, us, them: He gave it to you and me. In everyday speech you will hear "Me and Lize are friends", but it is not standard. In English, polite order puts yourself last: "Lize and I", "you and me", not "I and Lize". Afrikaans does the same: Lize en ek, jy en ek.
5. One small word or two. When two nouns form one idea, English uses the small word once: My mother and father (3.5), the bread and butter. When the two things are different, the small word is repeated: a cat and a dog (3.7), the tea and the coffee (3.20). Afrikaans does the same: 'n kat en 'n hond, die tee en die koffie. Each noun takes its own form of "a": "a book and an apple", never "a book and a apple".
6. Two verbs, one subject. When one subject does two things, English does not repeat the subject: He opens the door and walks in (3.8), We eat bread and drink tea (3.9), Daniel and Lize sit under the tree and talk (3.14), Then I will phone my mother and ask (3.28). Both verbs must agree with the subject: "She opens the door and walks in", never "She opens the door and walk in". A helping verb (will, can) is used once for both: I will phone and ask. Afrikaans does the same, but its verbs do not change, so the matching -s is new for you.
7. The comma before "and". When "and" joins two full sentences, each with its own subject and verb, English puts a comma before it: It is hot today, and the children are swimming in the sea (3.13); I bought bread, milk and eggs, and then I went home (3.15). When "and" joins two words, or two verbs of the same subject, there is no comma: He opens the door and walks in (3.8). If both sentences are very short, the comma may be left out: He came and I left. The Afrikaans examples in this lesson keep the comma in the same places as the English, so that you can see them side by side.
8. Come and see. After "come", "go" and a few other verbs, English joins the second verb with "and": Come and see (3.4), Come and eat with us (3.27), Go and ask your mother, Wait and see. Afrikaans puts the two verbs side by side with no word between them: Kom kyk, Kom eet saam met ons, Gaan vra jou ma. This is the main trap of the lesson: an Afrikaans speaker leaves out "and" and says "Come see". In Part A the dash "-" shows that Afrikaans has no word for the English "and" (Come kom and - see kyk). Remember that "Come to see" is a different sentence: it says the purpose of the coming ("I came to see you").
9. Numbers and money. In English the tens come before the units, with a hyphen and no "and": twenty-five (3.12), thirty-two. Afrikaans says the units first and joins them with en: vyfentwintig is "five-and-twenty". Never say "five and twenty" in English. (English once did: see Part E.) After the hundreds British English, which South African English follows, uses "and": a hundred and five, two hundred and fifty (Afrikaans honderd en vyf). American English usually leaves it out. Money is read with "and" between the units: forty rand and fifty cents (3.22), nine rand and fifty cents (3.23). Afrikaans does the same: veertig rand en vyftig sent.
10. Fixed pairs. Many pairs are always said in the same order: bread and butter (3.1), black and white (3.3), ladies and gentlemen (3.11), salt and pepper, fish and chips, now and then, to and fro, Mr and Mrs. You cannot turn them round: not "butter and bread", not "gentlemen and ladies". Afrikaans pairs are in much the same order (brood en botter, swart en wit, dames en here), but not always: "to and fro" is heen en weer, "now and then" is nou en dan, and "and so on" is ensovoorts (ens.).
11. "And" at the start of a sentence. A sentence may begin with "And", mainly in speech and in stories: And sugar? (3.18), And you? (Afrikaans En jy?). Some teachers say it is wrong in school essays, but writers have always used it, and the King James Bible has "And God said" again and again (Lesson 2). Use it when the sentence really follows from the one before.
12. "Both ... and" and negatives. To stress that two things are true, English says "both ... and": Both Lize and Daniel are in the class (Afrikaans Beide Lize en Daniel is in die klas). After a negative English uses "or", not "and": I don't have a brother or a sister (Afrikaans of: Ek het nie 'n broer of 'n suster nie).
13. Spelling and sign. The word is always spelled a-n-d. In writing never use "an" for "and" (bread an butter); the spoken sound /ən/ is not a spelling. The sign & is used in names of firms and in lists and tables, not in ordinary prose (Part E). Inside the title of a book "and" has no capital letter: Pride and Prejudice.
14. How Part A reads. A hyphen in the English gloss joins the words that translate one Afrikaans word (Cape-Town Kaapstad, are-swimming swem). A hyphen in the Afrikaans joins words that stand apart in the real sentence: opens maak-oop (Hy maak die deur oop), bought het-gekoop and went het-gegaan (het ... gekoop, het ... gegaan), home huis-toe (huis toe), and in the genre section wants wil-hê, need het-nodig and with saam-met. The dash "-" alone means that the word has no match in the other language (3.4, 3.27). Part A follows the English order: in 3.9 the real Afrikaans is Ons eet elke oggend brood en drink tee, which has the time before the objects, and in 3.15 the real order after en is toe het ek huis toe gegaan.
Common mistakes:
- ✗ Lize and Daniel is in the garden. ✓ Lize and Daniel are in the garden. - ✗ The bread and the milk is there. ✓ The bread and the milk are there. - ✗ Come see. / Come, see. ✓ Come and see. - ✗ She opens the door and walk in. ✓ She opens the door and walks in. - ✗ I am twenty-five and my sister twelve is. ✓ I am twenty-five and my sister is twelve. - ✗ five and twenty ✓ twenty-five - ✗ Me and Lize are friends. / I and Lize are friends. ✓ Lize and I are friends. - ✗ It is hot today and, the children are swimming. ✓ It is hot today, and the children are swimming. - ✗ I don't have a brother and a sister. ✓ I don't have a brother or a sister. - ✗ bread an butter ✓ bread and butter - ✗ /end/ (end) or /ænt/ (ant) ✓ /ænd/, weak /ən/
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Part E (Cultural context):
"And" is the third most frequent word in English, and it is also the word that gives English its sentences their rhythm: "and God said", "and then", "and so on", "and you?". Children learn it early, and in a story told by a child almost every sentence begins with "and then".
The sign & is called the ampersand. The name comes from the old school habit of saying the sign at the end of the alphabet as "and per se and", "and by itself, and", which was worn down to "ampersand". Today & appears in the names of firms (Marks & Spencer), in titles and in lists, but it is not used in ordinary prose. In speech you always say "and". In informal names and songs, "and" is shortened to 'n': rock 'n' roll, fish 'n' chips. Look at the apostrophes: they stand for the missing a and d, so this 'n' is not the Afrikaans article 'n, which is an entirely different word.
"Ladies and gentlemen" is the traditional way to address an audience: at a wedding, a concert or a ceremony. In South Africa you will hear "Ladies and gentlemen" in a formal speech and the Afrikaans "Dames en here". More and more speakers now prefer a greeting that includes everyone ("Good evening, everyone"), and the shorter forms ("Hi, everyone") are normal in an informal setting.
Lists are part of everyday life, and so is the question "And you?" It is the polite way to give the conversation back to the other person: "I'm fine, thanks, and you?" (the same greeting as in Lesson 2). The single word "And?" with a falling tone means something else: "So what?" It can sound rude.
English once counted as Afrikaans does. A well-known nursery rhyme, "Sing a Song of Sixpence", begins with "Sing a song of sixpence, a pocket full of rye; four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie". "Four and twenty" is the old form of "twenty-four", with the units first; Afrikaans vierentwintig still says it that way. Today you will only meet it in old songs and rhymes. In modern English you say "twenty-four".
At a South African braai (barbecue) the meal may be described as "meat, pap and salad", with the commas and the last "and" in the usual places, and at a takeaway the familiar order is "fish and chips". Both are good models for a list.
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Part F (Literary citation):
Psalm 23:6, in the English King James Version (1611; text as printed in the standard edition); Afrikaans text from Die Bybel 1933/1953-vertaling (AFR53). The whole verse is given.
F-A (English and Afrikaans text, word by word):
"Surely net goodness goedheid and en mercy guns shall sal follow volg me my all al the die days dae of van my my life lewe: and en I ek will sal dwell bly in in the die house huis of van the die LORD HERE for-ever in-lengte-van-dae."
F-B (Original text followed by the Afrikaans translation):
"Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the LORD for ever."
"Net goedheid en guns sal my volg al die dae van my lewe; en ek sal in die huis van die HERE bly in lengte van dae."
F-C (English text only):
"Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the LORD for ever."
F-D (Grammar and literary commentary):
This is the last verse of the 23rd Psalm, one of the best-known texts in English, and in Afrikaans too. It has "and" twice, in the two ways you have met: once to join two nouns, and once to join two sentences.
- goodness and mercy ↔ goedheid en guns: "and" joins two nouns, like bread and butter (Part D, rule 1). The two are a pair. The verb that follows, "shall follow", is plural in meaning, but "shall" has no form for the plural and no ending: it is the same for "I", "you", "goodness and mercy". In a modern sentence it would be "Goodness and mercy will follow me", or, in the present, "Goodness and mercy follow me" (Part D, rule 3). Afrikaans sal serves for both "shall" and "will". - Surely ↔ Net: look out. Afrikaans net means "only" or "just" (net nou, "just now"), and it is not the English noun "net". The two Bibles do not translate each other word for word here: the KJV has "Surely", which means "certainly", and the Afrikaans 1953 has "Net", "only". Neither is a mistake; the Hebrew word at the start of the verse can be understood either way. Guns is "favour" or "kindness" in today's Afrikaans; the KJV has "mercy". - the colon after "life" ↔ the semicolon after lewe: the colon is old punctuation. Today English would write a semicolon or a comma and a dash, and the Afrikaans has a semicolon. - and I will dwell ↔ en ek sal bly: the second "and" joins two full sentences, and the second has a new subject, "I": so today we would put a comma before it (Part D, rule 7). "Dwell" is an old, formal word for "live" or "stay"; it is the Afrikaans bly. Note that Afrikaans bly has two meanings: "stay, live", as here, and "glad", as in Ek is bly (Lesson 2). - for ever ↔ in lengte van dae: the Afrikaans says "in length of days", which is closer to the Hebrew; the KJV gives the sense, "for ever". The KJV writes it as two words; today most writers write "forever" as one. - LORD ↔ HERE: the capital letters show that the Hebrew has the name of God, not the ordinary word for "lord". Afrikaans has the same convention.
In modern English both halves would use "will": "Surely goodness and mercy will follow me all the days of my life, and I will live in the house of the Lord forever."
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Lize and Daniel are friends now, and after school they go to the shop in Stellenbosch to buy things for Daniel's mother. Lize speaks in 3.18, 3.20, 3.24, 3.26 and 3.28; Daniel speaks in 3.17, 3.19 and 3.27; the woman at the till speaks in 3.22; the other sentences tell what happens.
Part A (English and Afrikaans text, word by word):
3.16 After ná school skool, Lize Lize and en Daniel Daniel walk stap to na the die shop winkel.
3.17 "My my mother ma wants wil-hê bread brood, milk melk and en eggs eiers," says sê Daniel Daniel.
3.18 "And en sugar suiker?" asks vra Lize Lize.
3.19 "No nee, we ons have het sugar suiker, but maar we ons need het-nodig tea tee and en coffee koffie."
3.20 "The die tea tee and en the die coffee koffie are is there daar, by by the die door deur," says sê Lize Lize.
3.21 Daniel Daniel takes neem the die bread brood, the die milk melk and en the die eggs eiers, and en Lize Lize takes neem the die tea tee and en the die coffee koffie.
3.22 "That dit is is forty veertig rand rand and en fifty vyftig cents sent," says sê the die woman vrou at by the die till kassa.
3.23 Daniel Daniel gives gee her haar fifty vyftig rand rand, and en she sy gives gee him hom nine nege rand rand and en fifty vyftig cents sent back terug.
3.24 "Thank-you dankie, and en goodbye totsiens," says sê Lize Lize.
3.25 Outside buite, the die sun son is is warm warm and en the die sky lug is is blue blou.
3.26 "I ek am is hungry honger and en thirsty dors," says sê Lize Lize.
3.27 "Come kom and - eat eet with saam-met us ons, Lize Lize," says sê Daniel Daniel.
3.28 "Thank-you dankie! Then dan I ek will sal phone bel my my mother ma and en ask vra."
3.29 Her haar mother ma says sê yes ja, and en the die two twee friends vriende go gaan to na Daniel's Daniel-se house huis.
3.30 They hulle eat eet bread brood and en cheese kaas, and en then dan they hulle do doen their hul homework huiswerk together saam.
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Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Afrikaans translation):
3.16 After school, Lize and Daniel walk to the shop. Ná skool stap Lize en Daniel na die winkel.
3.17 "My mother wants bread, milk and eggs," says Daniel. "My ma wil brood, melk en eiers hê," sê Daniel.
3.18 "And sugar?" asks Lize. "En suiker?" vra Lize.
3.19 "No, we have sugar, but we need tea and coffee." "Nee, ons het suiker, maar ons het tee en koffie nodig."
3.20 "The tea and the coffee are there, by the door," says Lize. "Die tee en die koffie is daar, by die deur," sê Lize.
3.21 Daniel takes the bread, the milk and the eggs, and Lize takes the tea and the coffee. Daniel neem die brood, die melk en die eiers, en Lize neem die tee en die koffie.
3.22 "That is forty rand and fifty cents," says the woman at the till. "Dit is veertig rand en vyftig sent," sê die vrou by die kassa.
3.23 Daniel gives her fifty rand, and she gives him nine rand and fifty cents back. Daniel gee haar vyftig rand, en sy gee hom nege rand en vyftig sent terug.
3.24 "Thank you, and goodbye," says Lize. "Dankie, en totsiens," sê Lize.
3.25 Outside, the sun is warm and the sky is blue. Buite is die son warm en die lug is blou.
3.26 "I am hungry and thirsty," says Lize. "Ek is honger en dors," sê Lize.
3.27 "Come and eat with us, Lize," says Daniel. "Kom eet saam met ons, Lize," sê Daniel.
3.28 "Thank you! Then I will phone my mother and ask." "Dankie! Dan sal ek my ma bel en vra."
3.29 Her mother says yes, and the two friends go to Daniel's house. Haar ma sê ja, en die twee vriende gaan na Daniel se huis.
3.30 They eat bread and cheese, and then they do their homework together. Hulle eet brood en kaas, en dan doen hulle saam hul huiswerk.
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Part C (English text only):
3.16 After school, Lize and Daniel walk to the shop.
3.17 "My mother wants bread, milk and eggs," says Daniel.
3.18 "And sugar?" asks Lize.
3.19 "No, we have sugar, but we need tea and coffee."
3.20 "The tea and the coffee are there, by the door," says Lize.
3.21 Daniel takes the bread, the milk and the eggs, and Lize takes the tea and the coffee.
3.22 "That is forty rand and fifty cents," says the woman at the till.
3.23 Daniel gives her fifty rand, and she gives him nine rand and fifty cents back.
3.24 "Thank you, and goodbye," says Lize.
3.25 Outside, the sun is warm and the sky is blue.
3.26 "I am hungry and thirsty," says Lize.
3.27 "Come and eat with us, Lize," says Daniel.
3.28 "Thank you! Then I will phone my mother and ask."
3.29 Her mother says yes, and the two friends go to Daniel's house.
3.30 They eat bread and cheese, and then they do their homework together.
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Part D (Grammar explanation):
The narrative is mostly in the simple present (walk, wants, takes, gives, eat), with dialogue. The thread is "and" in all its uses: to join two nouns, two verbs, two sentences, the units of money, and a question.
- After school (3.16): "Lize and Daniel walk" has two subjects joined by "and", so the verb is plural (Part D, rule 3). The Afrikaans puts the verb before the subject after Ná skool: Ná skool stap Lize en Daniel; the English subject stays in front: "After school, Lize and Daniel walk". English usually puts a comma after an opening phrase. - A list (3.17): "bread, milk and eggs" has the comma after "bread" and "and" before the last item (Part D, rule 2). The Afrikaans wil ... hê has the second verb at the end: My ma wil brood, melk en eiers hê. English "wants" is one word. - "And" to begin (3.18): "And sugar?" asks about one more thing. Afrikaans En suiker? is the same (Part D, rule 11). - "But" and "and" (3.19): "No, we have sugar, but we need tea and coffee." "But" shows the contrast, and "and" joins the two things needed. Afrikaans needs the verb at the end: ons het tee en koffie nodig; English "need" is one word before the nouns. - Repeating "the" (3.20, 3.21): "the tea and the coffee" repeats the article because they are two different things (Part D, rule 5), and the verb is plural: are (3.20). In 3.21, "Daniel takes ... and Lize takes ..." are two full sentences, so there is a comma before "and" (Part D, rule 7). Each part has its own list: "the bread, the milk and the eggs". - Money (3.22, 3.23): "forty rand and fifty cents" has "and" between the units (Part D, rule 9), like the Afrikaans veertig rand en vyftig sent. "Rand" does not take an -s, as in Afrikaans. In 3.23 the first "and" joins two sentences and has a comma; the second one is in "nine rand and fifty cents", which has none. "Back" ends the English sentence, as terug ends the Afrikaans one. - "Thank you, and goodbye" (3.24): "And" joins two polite phrases. Afrikaans Dankie, en totsiens is the same. - Two short sentences, two adjectives (3.25, 3.26): "the sun is warm and the sky is blue" joins two short sentences, and the comma may be left out (Part D, rule 7); "hungry and thirsty" joins two adjectives after am, and needs no comma. Afrikaans has the same: Ek is honger en dors. - Come and eat (3.27): the English needs "and" between "come" and "eat", where Afrikaans has Kom eet (Part D, rule 8). The name Lize is set off by commas, as in Afrikaans. - Two verbs, one subject (3.28): "I will phone my mother and ask": one subject, one "will", two verbs, no comma (Part D, rule 6). The Afrikaans order is Dan sal ek my ma bel en vra: after Dan the verb sal comes before the subject ek, where English keeps "I will". - A new sentence after "and" (3.29, 3.30): "Her mother says yes, and the two friends go" has a comma, because the second part has a new subject (the friends). "They eat bread and cheese, and then they do their homework together": the first "and" joins two nouns, a fixed pair like bread and butter (Part D, rule 10); the second joins two sentences. Afrikaans has dan doen hulle saam hul huiswerk, with the verb before the subject after dan.
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Pronunciation and Orthography Notes:
- and /ænd/, weak /ənd/ or /ən/, very weak /n/: bread and butter /ˌbred ən ˈbʌtə/, you and I /ju ən ˈaɪ/. In running speech the word is short and weak, and the d is often not heard before a consonant. - The strong vowel /æ/ is the vowel of cat: not /ɛ/ as in Afrikaans en or in the English "end". - The final d is voiced /d/, not t. Afrikaans hand is said hant; English hand /hænd/ and and /ænd/ end in a voiced d. - Spelling: a-n-d, always the same. Not "an" (an apple, an hour), not "en", not "&" in ordinary writing. In titles "and" has no capital letter in the middle: Pride and Prejudice. - The apostrophes in rock 'n' roll stand for the missing a and d. The Afrikaans article 'n has only one apostrophe, in front, and means "a". - A comma goes before "and" when it joins two full sentences with different subjects (3.13, 3.21, 3.29), and between the items of a list (3.15), but not before "and" in a pair (3.1) or with two verbs of one subject (3.8). - Numbers: twenty-five is written with a hyphen, and the tens come first: Afrikaans vyfentwintig is written as one word, and the units come first. Capital letters: the names of people and places (Lize, Daniel, Cape Town, Stellenbosch), and the word "I".
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Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)