Introduction: In this first lesson we study "the", the most frequent word in English. "The" is the definite article. It stands in front of a noun and tells the listener: "you know which one I mean". English speakers use it all the time: "the book", "the door", "the sun", "the teacher".
Kinyarwanda has no article at all. The word igitabo means "a book" or "the book", and the sentence and the situation show which is meant: Igitabo kiri ku meza is "The book is on the table", and Mfite igitabo is "I have a book". When Kinyarwanda needs to point to one particular thing, it uses a demonstrative, and the demonstrative changes with the class of the noun. Notice that the noun loses its first vowel after a demonstrative: umwana, but uyu mwana; igitabo, but iki gitabo.
- uyu mwana (this child), uwo mwana (that child, the one we spoke about), uriya mwana (that child over there): class 1 - iki gitabo, icyo gitabo, kiriya gitabo: class 7 - ibi bitabo, ibyo bitabo, biriya bitabo: class 8 - iyi nka, iyo nka, iriya nka: class 9 - izi nka, izo nka, ziriya nka: class 10
English "the" is both simpler and weaker than these. It is simpler, because it never changes: the book, the books, the child, the children, the cow, the cows. Learn it once and it fits every noun, singular or plural. It is weaker, because it does not say near or far: "the book" is neither iki gitabo nor kiriya gitabo. It says only that the speaker and the listener both know which book. The nearest Kinyarwanda word is the demonstrative that points back to something already mentioned, uwo, iyo, icyo and the others: Mfite imbwa. Iyo mbwa ni nini. = "I have a dog. The dog is big." But English uses "the" far more often than Kinyarwanda uses iyo or icyo. In most places where English writes "the", Kinyarwanda writes nothing at all: Izuba rirasira iburasirazuba = "The sun rises in the east". For this reason Part A below often shows "-" after "the": nothing in the Kinyarwanda sentence corresponds to it.
English uses "the":
- when the thing has been mentioned before: "a dog" the first time, "the dog" after that - when there is only one of it: the sun, the moon, the earth, the east - when the situation shows which one: "Close the door" (the door of this room) - when the rest of the sentence shows which one: "the woman who sells milk" - before superlatives and ordinal numbers: the first lesson, the second lesson, the biggest market - before the names of rivers, seas and mountain ranges: the Nyabarongo, the Akagera, the Nile, the Indian Ocean
English does not use "the" before the names of people, before most names of countries, provinces, cities and towns (Rwanda, Kigali, Huye, Musanze), before the names of lakes (Lake Kivu), or before the names of languages (English, Kinyarwanda). Notice the difference: "the Akagera" is the river; "Akagera National Park" is the name of the park, and a name of this kind takes no "the".
Etymology: "the" comes from an Old English demonstrative (se, sēo, þæt, later þe) that meant something like "that one". Over the centuries the word grew weak and became an article. So English "the" began its life as a demonstrative, just like Kinyarwanda uwo or icyo, and the two still do some of the same work.
"The" has a partner: the indefinite article "a" or "an" ("a book", "an apple"), which introduces something new. Kinyarwanda has no word for this either: Mfite imbwa = "I have a dog". "A" and "an" have their own lesson; in this lesson they appear only in the examples.
What does "the" mean in Kinyarwanda? There is no single word. Most of the time "the" is not translated at all, because the bare Kinyarwanda noun already carries its meaning: "the book" = igitabo. When "the" points back to something already mentioned, the nearest Kinyarwanda equivalent is the demonstrative ending in -o: uwo, iyo, icyo, ibyo, izo and the others, chosen by the class of the noun.
Key Takeaways:
- "The" never changes: the book, the books, the child, the children. - Kinyarwanda has no article; "the book" is usually just igitabo. - "The" is weaker than iki and kiriya: it means "the one we both know", not "this one" or "that one there". - A thing mentioned again takes "the": "I have a dog. The dog is big." (Iyo mbwa ni nini.) - No "the" before names of people, cities, countries, lakes and languages: Kigali, Rwanda, Lake Kivu, Kinyarwanda; but rivers take it: the Nyabarongo.
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Pronunciation Guide:
the — before a consonant sound /ðə/: the book /ðə ˈbʊk/, the school /ðə ˈskuːl/; before a vowel sound /ði/: the east /ði ˈiːst/, the earth /ði ˈɜːθ/; with stress, meaning "the famous one, the real one", /ðiː/.
The first sound of "the", /ð/, does not exist in Kinyarwanda. Put the tip of the tongue lightly between the teeth and let the air pass with voice, so that the throat buzzes. It is neither "d" nor "z". Many Kinyarwanda speakers say "de book" or "ze book": you will be understood, but it is not the standard sound. The same tongue position, without voice, gives /θ/, the sound of "th" in "thank" and "earth". Kinyarwanda has neither sound, and its spelling never uses "th".
The vowel of "the" before a consonant, /ə/, is a short, weak sound with no stress, like the "a" at the end of "sofa". Kinyarwanda has no such vowel: its five vowels a, e, i, o, u are all full and clear. Do not say "the" with a full Kinyarwanda e; let the vowel shrink and run into the next word: the_book, on_the_table /ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl/.
Remember that the rule depends on the sound, not the letter: the hour /ði ˈaʊə/ (the h is silent, so the word begins with a vowel sound), but the university /ðə ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəti/ (the word begins with the sound /j/, like Kinyarwanda y in yego).
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Part A (English and Kinyarwanda text, word by word):
1.1 The - book igitabo is kiri on ku the - table meza.
1.2 Close funga the - door urugi.
1.3 The - sun izuba rises rirasira in - the - east iburasirazuba.
1.4 Where he is riri the - school ishuri?
1.5 The - cows inka are ziri in mu the - field murima.
1.6 I - have mfite a - dog imbwa. The iyo dog mbwa is ni big nini.
1.7 Please ndakwinginze give mpa me - the - water amazi.
1.8 The - children abana are bari at ku school ishuri.
1.9 Kigali Kigali is ni the - capital umurwa mukuru of w' Rwanda u Rwanda.
1.10 The - Nyabarongo Nyabarongo is ni a - long muremure river umugezi.
1.11 I - bought naguze a - book igitabo yesterday ejo. The icyo book gitabo is ni new gishya.
1.12 The - woman umugore who - sells ucuruza milk amata lives atuye here hano.
1.13 The - first rya mbere lesson isomo is - easy riroroshye.
1.14 The - people abantu of bo mu Rwanda Rwanda speak bavuga Kinyarwanda Ikinyarwanda.
1.15 When iyo the - sun izuba sets rirenze, the - children abana go - home bataha.
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Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Kinyarwanda translation):
1.1 The book is on the table. Igitabo kiri ku meza.
1.2 Close the door. Funga urugi.
1.3 The sun rises in the east. Izuba rirasira iburasirazuba.
1.4 Where is the school? Ishuri riri he?
1.5 The cows are in the field. Inka ziri mu murima.
1.6 I have a dog. The dog is big. Mfite imbwa. Iyo mbwa ni nini.
1.7 Please give me the water. Ndakwinginze, mpa amazi.
1.8 The children are at school. Abana bari ku ishuri.
1.9 Kigali is the capital of Rwanda. Kigali ni umurwa mukuru w'u Rwanda.
1.10 The Nyabarongo is a long river. Nyabarongo ni umugezi muremure.
1.11 I bought a book yesterday. The book is new. Ejo naguze igitabo. Icyo gitabo ni gishya.
1.12 The woman who sells milk lives here. Umugore ucuruza amata atuye hano.
1.13 The first lesson is easy. Isomo rya mbere riroroshye.
1.14 The people of Rwanda speak Kinyarwanda. Abantu bo mu Rwanda bavuga Ikinyarwanda.
1.15 When the sun sets, the children go home. Iyo izuba rirenze, abana bataha.
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Part C (English text only):
1.1 The book is on the table.
1.2 Close the door.
1.3 The sun rises in the east.
1.4 Where is the school?
1.5 The cows are in the field.
1.6 I have a dog. The dog is big.
1.7 Please give me the water.
1.8 The children are at school.
1.9 Kigali is the capital of Rwanda.
1.10 The Nyabarongo is a long river.
1.11 I bought a book yesterday. The book is new.
1.12 The woman who sells milk lives here.
1.13 The first lesson is easy.
1.14 The people of Rwanda speak Kinyarwanda.
1.15 When the sun sets, the children go home.
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Part D (Grammar explanation):
These are the grammar rules for "the" in English:
1. "The" never changes. Kinyarwanda changes the beginning of the noun and every word that agrees with it: igitabo, ibitabo; umwana, abana; iki gitabo, ibi bitabo. English changes only the end of the noun, and "the" stays the same: the book, the books; the child, the children (1.8, 1.15); the cow, the cows (1.5). There is no "the" for class 7 and another for class 8: one word does all the work.
2. "The" comes first. In Kinyarwanda the adjective follows the noun: imbwa nini, umugezi muremure, igitabo gishya. In English "the" stands before the noun, and an adjective stands between "the" and the noun: the big dog, the new book, the first lesson (1.13), a long river (1.10). Never "dog the" or "the dog big" for "the big dog".
3. A thing mentioned again takes "the". The first time, English says "a"; after that, "the": "I have a dog. The dog is big" (1.6); "I bought a book yesterday. The book is new" (1.11). Here Kinyarwanda uses the demonstrative that points back: iyo mbwa, icyo gitabo. This is the one place where Kinyarwanda and English do almost the same thing.
4. "The" before what is clear from the situation. "Close the door" (1.2) means the door of this room; "Where is the school?" (1.4) means the school of this place; "Please give me the water" (1.7) means the water on this table. Kinyarwanda says urugi, ishuri, amazi with no extra word; English must say "the".
5. "The" before what is unique. There is only one sun and one east: the sun, the east (1.3, 1.15). Kinyarwanda says izuba, iburasirazuba. English almost never says "sun" or "east" alone. Notice that "in the east" is three English words for one Kinyarwanda word, iburasirazuba.
6. "The" before a noun made clear by the rest of the sentence: "the woman who sells milk" (1.12), "the people of Rwanda" (1.14), "the capital of Rwanda" (1.9). The words after the noun ("who sells milk", "of Rwanda") show which one, so the noun takes "the". Notice that English "who" does the work that Kinyarwanda does with the form of the verb (umugore ucuruza amata), and English "of" does the work of wa, bo, rya and the other connectives (umurwa mukuru w'u Rwanda).
7. "The" before ordinals and superlatives: the first lesson (1.13), the second lesson, the biggest market. Kinyarwanda says isomo rya mbere, with no article; English cannot say "first lesson is easy".
8. Places. Rivers take "the": the Nyabarongo (1.10), the Akagera. Cities and countries do not: Kigali, Rwanda (1.9). Languages do not: Kinyarwanda (1.14), English.
9. No "the" in some fixed phrases: "at school" (1.8), "go home" (1.15), "at home", "go to church", "go to bed". Here English uses no article. "The children are at school" means that they are there as pupils; "at the school" would mean only the place.
10. "The" often hides inside a Kinyarwanda locative. Kinyarwanda says mu murima, ku meza, mu nzu: the little words mu and ku, and the noun without its first vowel. English needs three words: "in the field", "on the table" (1.1, 1.5), "in the house". Do not forget "the".
11. Do not confuse the two jobs of iyo. In 1.6 iyo is a demonstrative (iyo mbwa, "the dog"); in 1.15 the same word iyo means "when" (iyo izuba rirenze, "when the sun sets"). English uses two quite different words here: "the" and "when".
Common mistakes:
- ✗ Sun rises in east. ✓ The sun rises in the east. (Kinyarwanda has no article, so it is easy to leave "the" out.) - ✗ This book is on table. ✓ The book is on the table. (Do not use "this" or "that" for every Kinyarwanda iki or icyo: "the" is the usual word.) - ✗ The dog big. ✓ The dog is big. Or: the big dog. (English needs "is"; and the adjective stands before the noun.) - ✗ The books is on the table. / ✗ The book are on the table. ✓ The book is on the table. ✓ The books are on the table. ("The" does not change, but "is" and "are" do.) - ✗ The Kigali is the capital of the Rwanda. ✓ Kigali is the capital of Rwanda. (No "the" before cities and countries.) - ✗ The people of Rwanda speak the Kinyarwanda. ✓ The people of Rwanda speak Kinyarwanda. (No "the" before languages.) - ✗ Nyabarongo is a long river. ✓ The Nyabarongo is a long river. (Rivers take "the".) - ✗ de book, ze east ✓ the book /ðə/, the east /ði/
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Part E (Cultural context):
English is a young language in Rwanda. The Constitution of 2003 names it an official language, beside Kinyarwanda and French; Swahili was added in 2017. In October 2008 the government decided that English would be the language of teaching in public schools, and Rwanda joined the Commonwealth in 2009. Kinyarwanda, meanwhile, remains the mother tongue of almost everyone in the country. So most Rwandan learners of English meet "the" at school, as a word their own language does not have.
Kinyarwanda names languages with the prefix iki-: Ikinyarwanda, Icyongereza (English), Igifaransa (French), Igiswahili. This course is called Twige Icyongereza, "Let us learn English". English names languages with no prefix and no article: Kinyarwanda, English, French.
The Kinyarwanda words for east and west show how a language can carry the sun inside its words: iburasirazuba is the place where the sun rises (kurasa), and iburengerazuba the place where it sets (kurenga), the same verbs as rirasira and rirenze in 1.3 and 1.15. English "east" and "west" hide their history, and they need "the": the east, the west, the sunrise.
Rwandan English follows the general rule for rivers and lakes: "the Nyabarongo" and "the Akagera", but "Lake Kivu", "Lake Muhazi" and "Lake Burera", without "the". Mountains standing alone take no "the" (Mount Karisimbi), but a range does: "the Virunga Mountains", or simply "the Virungas".
When you speak to someone, there is no "the" before the word you call them by. The greeting Mwaramutse, mwarimu! is "Good morning, Teacher!" in English, never "Good morning, the teacher!"
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Part F (Literary citation):
Genesis 1:1, 1:3 and 1:4, in the English King James Version (1611); Kinyarwanda translation from the Bibiliya Yera of the Bible Society of Rwanda (Itangiriro 1:1, 1:3–4).
F-A (English and Kinyarwanda text, word by word):
"In - the - beginning mbere na mbere God Imana created yaremye the - heaven ijuru and n' the - earth isi." … "And - God Imana said iravuga iti, Let - there - be habeho light umucyo: and - there - was ubaho light umucyo. And - God Imana saw ibona the - light umucyo, that ko it - was ari good mwiza: and - God Imana divided itandukanya the - light umucyo from n' the - darkness umwijima."
F-B (Original text followed by the Kinyarwanda translation):
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." … "And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness."
"Mbere na mbere Imana yaremye ijuru n'isi." … "Imana iravuga iti "Habeho umucyo", umucyo ubaho. Imana ibona umucyo ko ari mwiza, Imana itandukanya umucyo n'umwijima."
F-C (English text only):
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." … "And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness."
F-D (Grammar and literary commentary):
These are the first words of the Bible in the King James Version, the English translation of 1611 that has shaped the English language for four centuries. The sentences are short and joined again and again by "and". In the first verse "the" appears three times: the beginning, the heaven, the earth. Each time it points to one particular thing that the reader is to take as known and unique: not "a beginning" but the beginning, not "an earth" but this earth (Part D, rule 5).
Verses 3 and 4 show rule 3 at work. In verse 3 light is new: "Let there be light: and there was light", with no article, because light is spoken of in general and for the first time. In verse 4 the same light has been mentioned, so it takes "the": "God saw the light", "God divided the light from the darkness". In English, the article follows the light from its first appearance to its second.
Now look at the Kinyarwanda. Not one of these "the"s has a word of its own. Ijuru, isi, umucyo, umwijima: each bare noun already carries the meaning, and umucyo is the same word in verse 3 and in verse 4. Kinyarwanda does not mark the second mention here, even with iyo or uwo; English must.
- God: a name, so no "the". Kinyarwanda Imana is written with a capital for the same reason. - the heaven and the earth: "the" is repeated before each noun. Kinyarwanda joins them with n' (na before a vowel): ijuru n'isi. - the darkness: in verse 4 darkness is set against the light, a particular darkness, so it takes "the". - that it was good: old Bible English for "that the light was good". Kinyarwanda says it in the same order: ibona umucyo ko ari mwiza, "saw the light, that it is good". - Let there be light: Kinyarwanda says it in one word, Habeho.
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Aline goes to Kimironko Market in Kigali on a Saturday morning to buy fruit. She speaks with a seller. Aline speaks in 1.16, 1.18, 1.20, 1.22 and 1.28; the seller speaks in 1.17, 1.19, 1.21, 1.23 and 1.27; sentences 1.24 to 1.26, 1.29 and 1.30 tell what happens.
Part A (English and Kinyarwanda text, word by word):
1.16 Good morning mwaramutse! Where he are biri the - bananas ibitoki?
1.17 Good morning mwaramutse. The - bananas ibitoki are biri here hano, next to iruhande rw' the - potatoes ibirayi.
1.18 How much angahe are ni the - bananas ibitoki?
1.19 The - bananas ibitoki are ni one - thousand igihumbi francs amafaranga.
1.20 And na the - avocados avoka se?
1.21 The - avocados avoka are ni five atanu hundred magana francs amafaranga each imwe.
1.22 I - want ndashaka the - bananas ibitoki and na two ebyiri avocados avoka.
1.23 Here - are dore the - bananas ibitoki and na the - avocados avoka.
1.24 Aline Aline puts ashyira the - fruit imbuto in mu the - basket gitebo.
1.25 She - gives aha the - money amafaranga to - the - seller umucuruzi.
1.26 The - seller umucuruzi counts abara the - money amafaranga.
1.27 Thank you murakoze! The - market isoko is - full ryuzuye of - people abantu today uyu munsi.
1.28 Yes yego, and kandi the - sun izuba has - come - out ryavuye.
1.29 Now ubu the - basket igitebo is - full cyuzuye.
1.30 Aline Aline goes - home ataha with afite the - basket igitebo.
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Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Kinyarwanda translation):
1.16 Good morning! Where are the bananas? Mwaramutse! Ibitoki biri he?
1.17 Good morning. The bananas are here, next to the potatoes. Mwaramutse. Ibitoki biri hano, iruhande rw'ibirayi.
1.18 How much are the bananas? Ibitoki ni angahe?
1.19 The bananas are one thousand francs. Ibitoki ni amafaranga igihumbi.
1.20 And the avocados? Na avoka se?
1.21 The avocados are five hundred francs each. Avoka imwe ni amafaranga magana atanu.
1.22 I want the bananas and two avocados. Ndashaka ibitoki na avoka ebyiri.
1.23 Here are the bananas and the avocados. Dore ibitoki na avoka.
1.24 Aline puts the fruit in the basket. Aline ashyira imbuto mu gitebo.
1.25 She gives the money to the seller. Aha umucuruzi amafaranga.
1.26 The seller counts the money. Umucuruzi abara amafaranga.
1.27 Thank you! The market is full of people today. Murakoze! Isoko ryuzuye abantu uyu munsi.
1.28 Yes, and the sun has come out. Yego, kandi izuba ryavuye.
1.29 Now the basket is full. Ubu igitebo cyuzuye.
1.30 Aline goes home with the basket. Aline ataha afite igitebo.
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Part C (English text only):
1.16 Good morning! Where are the bananas?
1.17 Good morning. The bananas are here, next to the potatoes.
1.18 How much are the bananas?
1.19 The bananas are one thousand francs.
1.20 And the avocados?
1.21 The avocados are five hundred francs each.
1.22 I want the bananas and two avocados.
1.23 Here are the bananas and the avocados.
1.24 Aline puts the fruit in the basket.
1.25 She gives the money to the seller.
1.26 The seller counts the money.
1.27 Thank you! The market is full of people today.
1.28 Yes, and the sun has come out.
1.29 Now the basket is full.
1.30 Aline goes home with the basket.
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Part D (Grammar explanation):
The dialogue is in the simple present (are, want, puts, gives, counts, goes), with one present perfect ("the sun has come out", 1.28, Kinyarwanda izuba ryavuye). Its grammatical thread is "the" with things that the situation makes clear (Part D, rule 4): the bananas, the avocados, the basket, the money, the seller, the market. Aline and the seller both know which bananas and which money, so English says "the" every time, and Kinyarwanda says only ibitoki, amafaranga, igitebo, umucuruzi.
- "The" with plurals: the bananas, the avocados, the potatoes, the same "the" as in "the basket" and "the seller" (rule 1). Kinyarwanda changes the prefix (igitoki, ibitoki), English does not change "the". - A new thing and an old thing: "two avocados" (1.22) has no "the", because Aline asks for two that are not yet chosen; "the avocados" (1.23) are the ones the seller now holds out (rule 3). - Money and fruit: "the money" (1.25, 1.26) is the money Aline pays; "the fruit" (1.24) is the bananas and avocados she has just bought. "Fruit" is used here as one word for all of them, like Kinyarwanda imbuto. - "The sun" (1.28): unique, like "the sun" in 1.3 (rule 5). - "Goes home" (1.30): a fixed phrase with no article, as in 1.15 (rule 9). - No "the" before a name: Aline (1.24, 1.30), Kimironko, Kigali. - "Each" (1.21): Kinyarwanda imwe ("one") after the noun, avoka imwe; English puts "each" at the end of the sentence: "five hundred francs each". - "Next to" (1.17): Kinyarwanda iruhande rw'ibirayi; English "next to the potatoes". Do not forget "the".
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Pronunciation and Orthography Notes:
- the — /ðə/ before a consonant sound, /ði/ before a vowel sound, /ðiː/ when stressed. Unstressed, short, and joined to the next word. - /ð/ is made with the tongue between the teeth and voice in the throat. It is not Kinyarwanda d, and it is not z. - Spelling: t-h-e, always the same, for singular and plural and for every kind of noun. - Kinyarwanda spelling to watch when comparing: Kinyarwanda writes a sound close to English "ch" as cy (icyayi, icyo), and uses letter groups that English does not have, such as cy, jy, shy and rw. English never writes these groups. - Capital letters: English writes the names of languages and peoples with capitals: English, Kinyarwanda, French. It does not write "the" with a capital except at the start of a sentence or as the first word of a title (The Lion King).
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