Introduction: In this first lesson we study "the", the most frequent word in English. "The" is the definite article. It stands in front of a noun and tells the listener: "you know which one I mean". English speakers use it all the time: "the book", "the door", "the sun", "the teacher".
isiXhosa has no article at all. The word incwadi means "a book" or "the book", and the sentence and the situation show which is meant: Incwadi isetafileni is "The book is on the table", and Ndinencwadi is "I have a book". When isiXhosa needs to point to one particular thing, it uses a demonstrative, and the demonstrative changes with the class of the noun:
- le ncwadi (this book), leyo ncwadi (that book, the one we spoke about), leya ncwadi (that book over there): class 9 - ezi ncwadi, ezo ncwadi, eziya ncwadi: class 10 - lo mntwana, lowo mntwana, lowa mntwana: class 1 - esi sikolo, eso sikolo, esa sikolo: class 7
English "the" is both simpler and weaker than these. It is simpler, because it never changes: the book, the books, the child, the children, the school, the schools. Learn it once and it fits every noun, singular or plural. It is weaker, because it does not say near or far: "the book" is neither le ncwadi nor leya ncwadi. It says only that the speaker and the listener both know which book. The nearest isiXhosa word is leyo, the demonstrative that points back to something already mentioned: Ndinenja. Inja leyo imnyama. = "I have a dog. The dog is black." But English uses "the" far more often than isiXhosa uses leyo. In most places where English writes "the", isiXhosa writes nothing at all: Ilanga liphuma empuma = "The sun rises in the east". For this reason Part A below often shows "-" after "the": nothing in the isiXhosa sentence corresponds to it.
Do not mistake the first vowel of an isiXhosa noun (the i- of incwadi, the u- of ucango, the a- of amanzi) for an article. It is part of the noun, and it falls away in some forms: leyo ncwadi, akukho ncwadi ("there is no book").
English uses "the":
- when the thing has been mentioned before: "a dog" the first time, "the dog" after that - when there is only one of it: the sun, the moon, the earth, the east - when the situation shows which one: "Close the door" (the door of this room) - when the rest of the sentence shows which one: "the man who lives here" - before superlatives and ordinal numbers: the first lesson, the second lesson, the biggest school - before the names of rivers, seas and mountain ranges: the Kei, the Mzimvubu, the Indian Ocean, the Drakensberg
English does not use "the" before the names of people, before most names of countries, provinces, cities and towns (South Africa, Gauteng, Mthatha), or before the names of languages (English, Xhosa). Notice the difference: a name that contains an adjective usually takes "the": the Eastern Cape, the Western Cape, the Free State. A name without one does not: Gauteng, Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal.
Etymology: "the" comes from an Old English demonstrative (se, sēo, þæt, later þe) that meant something like "that one". Over the centuries the word grew weak and became an article. So English "the" began its life as a demonstrative, just like isiXhosa leyo, and the two words still do some of the same work.
"The" has a partner: the indefinite article "a" or "an" ("a book", "an apple"), which introduces something new. isiXhosa has no word for this either: Ndinenja = "I have a dog". "A" and "an" have their own lesson; in this lesson they appear only in the examples.
What does "the" mean in isiXhosa? There is no single word. Most of the time "the" is not translated at all, because the bare isiXhosa noun already carries its meaning: "the book" = incwadi. When "the" points back to something already mentioned, the nearest isiXhosa equivalent is the demonstrative of the second position: leyo, eso, lowo, ezo and the others, chosen by the noun class.
Key Takeaways:
- "The" never changes: the book, the books, the child, the children. - isiXhosa has no article; "the book" is usually just incwadi. - "The" is weaker than le and leya: it means "the one we both know", not "this one" or "that one there". - A thing mentioned again takes "the": "I have a dog. The dog is black." (Inja leyo imnyama.) - No "the" before names of people, cities and languages: Mthatha, Gauteng, Xhosa; but "the Eastern Cape" and "the Kei" take it.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Pronunciation Guide:
the — before a consonant sound /ðə/: the book /ðə ˈbʊk/, the school /ðə ˈskuːl/; before a vowel sound /ði/: the east /ði ˈiːst/, the earth /ði ˈɜːθ/; with stress, meaning "the famous one, the real one", /ðiː/.
The first sound of "the", /ð/, does not exist in isiXhosa. Put the tip of the tongue lightly between the teeth and let the air pass with voice, so that the throat buzzes. It is neither "d" nor "z". Some isiXhosa speakers say "de book" or "ze book": you will be understood, but it is not the standard sound. Notice also that English "th" is not isiXhosa th. In isiXhosa, th is a t with a strong puff of air, as in thetha ("speak") and Mthatha; in English, "th" is the soft sound made with the tongue between the teeth: /ð/ in "the", "this", "that", and its voiceless partner /θ/ in "thank" and "earth".
The vowel of "the" before a consonant, /ə/, is a short, weak sound with no stress, like the "a" at the end of "sofa". isiXhosa has no such vowel: its five vowels (a, e, i, o, u) are full and clear. Do not say "the" with a full isiXhosa e; let the vowel shrink and run into the next word: the_book, on_the_table /ɒn ðə ˈteɪbl/.
Remember that the rule depends on the sound, not the letter: the hour /ði ˈaʊə/ (the h is silent, so the word begins with a vowel sound), but the university /ðə ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəti/ (the word begins with the sound /j/, like isiXhosa y).
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part A (English and Xhosa text, word by word):
1.1 The - book incwadi is - on - the - table isetafileni.
1.2 Close vala the - door ucango.
1.3 The - sun ilanga rises liphuma in - the - east empuma.
1.4 Where sikuphi is - the - school isikolo?
1.5 The - children abantwana are - in - the - house basendlini.
1.6 I - have - a - dog ndinenja. The leyo dog inja is - black imnyama.
1.7 Please ndiyacela, give - me ndiphe the - water amanzi.
1.8 The - teacher utitshala is - at - school usesikolweni.
1.9 Mthatha iMthatha is - a - city yisixeko in - the - Eastern - Cape saseMpuma-Koloni.
1.10 The - river umlambo is - very kakhulu long mde.
1.11 I - bought ndathenga a - book incwadi yesterday izolo. The leyo book ncwadi is - new intsha.
1.12 The - man indoda who - lives ehlala here apha is - a - teacher ngutitshala.
1.13 The - first sokuqala lesson isifundo is - easy silula.
1.14 The - people abantu of - the - Eastern - Cape baseMpuma-Koloni speak bathetha Xhosa isiXhosa.
1.15 When xa the - sun ilanga sets litshona, the - children abantwana go baya home ekhaya.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Xhosa translation):
1.1 The book is on the table. Incwadi isetafileni.
1.2 Close the door. Vala ucango.
1.3 The sun rises in the east. Ilanga liphuma empuma.
1.4 Where is the school? Isikolo sikuphi?
1.5 The children are in the house. Abantwana basendlini.
1.6 I have a dog. The dog is black. Ndinenja. Inja leyo imnyama.
1.7 Please give me the water. Ndiyacela, ndiphe amanzi.
1.8 The teacher is at school. Utitshala usesikolweni.
1.9 Mthatha is a city in the Eastern Cape. IMthatha yisixeko saseMpuma-Koloni.
1.10 The river is very long. Umlambo mde kakhulu.
1.11 I bought a book yesterday. The book is new. Izolo ndathenga incwadi. Leyo ncwadi intsha.
1.12 The man who lives here is a teacher. Indoda ehlala apha ngutitshala.
1.13 The first lesson is easy. Isifundo sokuqala silula.
1.14 The people of the Eastern Cape speak Xhosa. Abantu baseMpuma-Koloni bathetha isiXhosa.
1.15 When the sun sets, the children go home. Xa ilanga litshona, abantwana baya ekhaya.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part C (English text only):
1.1 The book is on the table.
1.2 Close the door.
1.3 The sun rises in the east.
1.4 Where is the school?
1.5 The children are in the house.
1.6 I have a dog. The dog is black.
1.7 Please give me the water.
1.8 The teacher is at school.
1.9 Mthatha is a city in the Eastern Cape.
1.10 The river is very long.
1.11 I bought a book yesterday. The book is new.
1.12 The man who lives here is a teacher.
1.13 The first lesson is easy.
1.14 The people of the Eastern Cape speak Xhosa.
1.15 When the sun sets, the children go home.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part D (Grammar explanation):
These are the grammar rules for "the" in English:
1. "The" never changes. isiXhosa changes the beginning of the noun and every word that agrees with it: incwadi, iincwadi; umntwana, abantwana; le ncwadi, ezi ncwadi. English changes only the end of the noun, and "the" stays the same: the book, the books; the child, the children (1.5, 1.15). There is no "the" for class 9 and another for class 10: one word does all the work.
2. "The" comes first. In isiXhosa the adjective follows the noun: inja emnyama, umlambo omde, isifundo sokuqala. In English "the" stands before the noun, and an adjective stands between "the" and the noun: the black dog, the long river, the first lesson (1.13). Never "dog the black" or "lesson the first".
3. A thing mentioned again takes "the". The first time, English says "a"; after that, "the": "I have a dog. The dog is black" (1.6); "I bought a book yesterday. The book is new" (1.11). Here isiXhosa uses leyo, the demonstrative that points back: Inja leyo, Leyo ncwadi. This is the one place where isiXhosa and English do almost the same thing.
4. "The" before what is clear from the situation. "Close the door" (1.2) means the door of this room; "Where is the school?" (1.4) means the school of this place; "Please give me the water" (1.7) means the water on this table. isiXhosa says ucango, isikolo, amanzi with no extra word; English must say "the".
5. "The" before what is unique. There is only one sun and one east: the sun, the east (1.3, 1.15). isiXhosa says ilanga, empuma. English almost never says "sun" or "east" alone.
6. "The" before a noun made clear by the rest of the sentence: "the man who lives here" (1.12), "the people of the Eastern Cape" (1.14). The words after the noun ("who lives here", "of the Eastern Cape") show which one, so the noun takes "the". Notice that English "who" does the work of the isiXhosa relative form (indoda ehlala, "the man who lives"), and English "of the" does the work of the linking prefix in baseMpuma-Koloni.
7. "The" before ordinals and superlatives: the first lesson (1.13), the second lesson, the biggest school. isiXhosa says isifundo sokuqala, isifundo sesibini, with no article; English cannot say "first lesson is easy".
8. Places. Rivers take "the": the Kei, the Mzimvubu. Regions whose names contain an adjective take it too: the Eastern Cape (1.9, 1.14), the Western Cape. Cities, towns and countries do not: Mthatha (1.9), Gauteng, South Africa. Languages do not: Xhosa (1.14), English.
9. No "the" in some fixed phrases: "at school" (1.8), "go home" (1.15), "at home", "go to church", "go to bed". Here English uses no article, and the isiXhosa locatives usesikolweni and ekhaya have no article either.
10. "The" often hides inside an isiXhosa locative. isiXhosa adds -ni to a noun and changes its first vowel to say "in" or "at": indlu, endlini ("in the house", 1.5); itafile, etafileni ("on the table", 1.1). One isiXhosa word becomes three English words: "on the table". Do not forget "the". Where English leaves "the" out (at school, go home), the isiXhosa word is just as short, so learn each phrase as a whole.
Common mistakes:
- ✗ Sun rises in east. ✓ The sun rises in the east. (isiXhosa has no article, so it is easy to leave "the" out.) - ✗ This book is on table. ✓ The book is on the table. (Do not use "this" or "that" for every isiXhosa le or leyo: "the" is the usual word.) - ✗ The dog black. ✓ The dog is black. Or: the black dog. (English needs "is"; and the adjective stands before the noun.) - ✗ The books is on the table. / ✗ The book are on the table. ✓ The book is on the table. ✓ The books are on the table. ("The" does not change, but "is" and "are" do.) - ✗ The Mthatha is a city in Eastern Cape. ✓ Mthatha is a city in the Eastern Cape. (No "the" before a city, but "the" before the Eastern Cape.) - ✗ The people of the Eastern Cape speak the Xhosa. ✓ The people of the Eastern Cape speak Xhosa. (No "the" before languages.) - ✗ The teacher is at the school. (when you mean "at work, teaching") ✓ The teacher is at school. - ✗ de book, ze east ✓ the book /ðə/, the east /ði/
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part E (Cultural context):
English and isiXhosa live side by side in South Africa. In many schools in the Eastern Cape, children learn first in isiXhosa and then move to English as the language of their lessons, so most isiXhosa speakers meet "the" every school day. isiXhosa calls the English language isiNgesi, and the same prefix isi- names isiXhosa itself, isiZulu and the other Nguni languages.
The language has two names in English. "Xhosa" is the usual English word, and "isiXhosa" is the name the language gives itself; both are correct. Because English treats the name of a language as a proper name, it takes no "the": "she speaks Xhosa", never "she speaks the Xhosa". The people are the amaXhosa, and in English they are "the Xhosa", with "the", because here the word names a people and not a language.
The difference between "the Eastern Cape" and "Gauteng" is a good place to see the article at work in South African English. The name of the Eastern Cape contains an adjective, so it keeps "the", and so do "the Western Cape" and "the Free State". In isiXhosa the Eastern Cape is iMpuma-Koloni, and a speaker of isiXhosa simply says baseMpuma-Koloni for "of the Eastern Cape". In the same way English says "the Kei" and "the Mzimvubu", rivers of the Eastern Cape, but "Mthatha", "Gqeberha" and "Qonce".
The isiXhosa greeting Molo is said to one person, and Molweni to more than one. When isiXhosa calls someone, it drops the first vowel of the name: utitshala becomes Titshala!, and uThando becomes Thando! English does something similar: when you speak to someone, there is no "the" before the word you call them by. You say "Hello, Teacher!", never "Hello, the Teacher!"
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part F (Literary citation):
Genesis 1:1 and the second half of 1:2, in the English King James Version (1611); Xhosa translation from Izibhalo Ezingcwele, the Xhosa Bible of the Bible Society of South Africa (1975 edition, as printed at bible.com and wordproject.org). The middle of verse 2 is left out.
F-A (English and Xhosa text, word by word):
"In - the - beginning Ekuqalekeni God uThixo created wadala the - heaven amazulu and - the - earth nehlabathi. And - the - Spirit UMoya of - God kaThixo moved wafukama upon - the - face - of phezu the - waters kwamanzi lawo."
F-B (Original text followed by the Xhosa translation):
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."
"Ekuqalekeni uThixo wadala amazulu nehlabathi. UMoya kaThixo wafukama phezu kwamanzi lawo."
F-C (English text only):
"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."
F-D (Grammar and literary commentary):
These are the first words of the Bible in the King James Version, the English translation of 1611 that has shaped the English language for four centuries. The sentences are short and joined by "and", and "the" appears six times in the two sentences: the beginning, the heaven, the earth, the Spirit, the face, the waters. Every time it points to one particular thing that the reader is to take as known and unique: not "a beginning" but the beginning, not "an earth" but this earth.
Now look at the Xhosa. Five of those six "the"s have no word of their own. Ekuqalekeni ("in the beginning") is one word for three, as endlini is one word for "in the house" (Part D, rule 10); nehlabathi is na- ("and") joined to ihlabathi ("the earth"); uThixo, amazulu and UMoya are bare nouns.
- the beginning, the heaven, the earth: unique things (Part D, rule 5). - God: a name, so no "the". But the Spirit of God: "the" + noun + "of" + noun; the words after "of" show which spirit (rule 6). isiXhosa says UMoya kaThixo, with the linking word ka- where English has "of". - the face of the waters: isiXhosa says phezu kwamanzi, "upon the waters"; the one word phezu does the work of English "upon the face of". - amazulu is plural, "the heavens"; the KJV has the singular, "the heaven". - moved: the isiXhosa verb is wafukama. - the waters: isiXhosa says amanzi lawo. Here lawo is the demonstrative of the second position (class 6), "those", the same kind of word as leyo in 1.6. This is the one "the" in the passage that isiXhosa does translate. The part of verse 2 that is left out here already mentions the waters (phezu kwamanzi enzonzobila), so lawo points back to them: the case described in Part D, rule 3.
The Xhosa text is quoted as it is printed in the 1975 Bible, whose spelling is older than the spelling used in schools today.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Thando is a pupil at a school in Mthatha. It is the first English lesson of the year, and Thando speaks with the teacher. Thando speaks in 1.16, 1.18, 1.21 and 1.28; the teacher speaks in 1.17, 1.19, 1.20, 1.22, 1.23, 1.29 and 1.30; sentences 1.24 to 1.27 tell what happens in the classroom.
Part A (English and Xhosa text, word by word):
1.16 Hello molo, Teacher titshala!
1.17 Hello molo, Thando Thando. Where ikuphi is - the - book incwadi?
1.18 The - book incwadi is - here nantsi, on - the - table isetafileni.
1.19 Open vula the - book incwadi at - the - first sokuqala lesson kwisifundo.
1.20 The - first sokuqala lesson isifundo is - about sikhuluma the - word ngegama "the" elithi "the".
1.21 Teacher titshala, Xhosa isiXhosa has - no asinalo word igama "the" elithi "the".
1.22 Yes ewe. In - Xhosa kwisiXhosa we - say sithi "incwadi" "incwadi" or okanye "leyo ncwadi" "leyo ncwadi".
1.23 In - English kwisiNgesi we - say sithi "the book" "the book".
1.24 The - children abantwana read bafunda the - lesson isifundo.
1.25 Thando uThando writes ubhala the - words amagama in - the - book encwadini.
1.26 The - teacher utitshala closes uvala the - door ucango.
1.27 The - lesson isifundo is - over siphelile.
1.28 Thank - you enkosi, Teacher titshala! I - like ndiyasithanda the - first sokuqala lesson isifundo.
1.29 The - second sesibini lesson isifundo is - about sikhuluma the - word ngegama "be" elithi "be".
1.30 Go - well hamba kakuhle, Thando Thando. We - will - read siza kufunda the - second sesibini lesson isifundo together kunye.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part B (Full English sentence followed by the Xhosa translation):
1.16 Hello, Teacher! Molo, titshala!
1.17 Hello, Thando. Where is the book? Molo, Thando. Incwadi ikuphi?
1.18 The book is here, on the table. Incwadi nantsi, isetafileni.
1.19 Open the book at the first lesson. Vula incwadi kwisifundo sokuqala.
1.20 The first lesson is about the word "the". Isifundo sokuqala sikhuluma ngegama elithi "the".
1.21 Teacher, Xhosa has no word "the". Titshala, isiXhosa asinalo igama elithi "the".
1.22 Yes. In Xhosa we say "incwadi" or "leyo ncwadi". Ewe. KwisiXhosa sithi "incwadi" okanye "leyo ncwadi".
1.23 In English we say "the book". KwisiNgesi sithi "the book".
1.24 The children read the lesson. Abantwana bafunda isifundo.
1.25 Thando writes the words in the book. UThando ubhala amagama encwadini.
1.26 The teacher closes the door. Utitshala uvala ucango.
1.27 The lesson is over. Isifundo siphelile.
1.28 Thank you, Teacher! I like the first lesson. Enkosi, titshala! Ndiyasithanda isifundo sokuqala.
1.29 The second lesson is about the word "be". Isifundo sesibini sikhuluma ngegama elithi "be".
1.30 Go well, Thando. We will read the second lesson together. Hamba kakuhle, Thando. Siza kufunda isifundo sesibini kunye.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part C (English text only):
1.16 Hello, Teacher!
1.17 Hello, Thando. Where is the book?
1.18 The book is here, on the table.
1.19 Open the book at the first lesson.
1.20 The first lesson is about the word "the".
1.21 Teacher, Xhosa has no word "the".
1.22 Yes. In Xhosa we say "incwadi" or "leyo ncwadi".
1.23 In English we say "the book".
1.24 The children read the lesson.
1.25 Thando writes the words in the book.
1.26 The teacher closes the door.
1.27 The lesson is over.
1.28 Thank you, Teacher! I like the first lesson.
1.29 The second lesson is about the word "be".
1.30 Go well, Thando. We will read the second lesson together.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Part D (Grammar explanation):
The dialogue is in the simple present (is, read, writes, closes, like), with one future at the end ("we will read", 1.30, isiXhosa siza kufunda). Its grammatical thread is "the" with things that the situation makes clear (Part D, rule 4): the book, the table, the door, the lesson, the words, the children. Everyone in the classroom knows which book, which door, which children, so English says "the" every time, and isiXhosa says only incwadi, ucango, isifundo, amagama, abantwana.
- Ordinals: the first lesson (1.19, 1.20, 1.28), the second lesson (1.29, 1.30), isiXhosa isifundo sokuqala, isifundo sesibini (rule 7). - The word "the" (1.20), the word "be" (1.29): the noun "word" takes "the" because the quoted word that follows shows which one (rule 6). - No "the" before a name or a language: Thando, Xhosa (1.21, 1.22), English (1.23) (rule 8). - No "the" when you speak to someone: "Hello, Teacher!" (1.16), "Thank you, Teacher!" (1.28). "Teacher" is written here with a capital, because it is used like a name. In isiXhosa the same call loses its first vowel: Titshala, not utitshala. - "Here" in 1.18: isiXhosa says Incwadi nantsi ("here is the book"), with the word nantsi, which points and says "here it is" in one word. English says "The book is here": "the" for the book both people know, and "here" for the place. - "Xhosa has no word 'the'" (1.21): isiXhosa asinalo, "it does not have it". English puts "no" before the noun: "has no word". - "In the book" (1.25): isiXhosa encwadini, with the locative -ni (rule 10). One isiXhosa word, three English words. - "The lesson is over" (1.27): isiXhosa siphelile, a verb ("it has finished"); English uses "is" with "over".
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Pronunciation and Orthography Notes:
- the — /ðə/ before a consonant sound, /ði/ before a vowel sound, /ðiː/ when stressed. Unstressed, short, and joined to the next word. - /ð/ is made with the tongue between the teeth and voice in the throat. It is not isiXhosa d, and it is not isiXhosa th (the t with a puff of air in thetha and Mthatha). - Spelling: t-h-e, always the same, for singular and plural and for every kind of noun. - isiXhosa letters to watch when comparing: c, q and x are click sounds in isiXhosa (in cela, qala and xa). In English, c is /k/ or /s/, q is /kw/ (queen), and x is /ks/ (box). They are never clicks. - English writes the names of languages and peoples with capitals: English, Xhosa, Zulu. It does not write "the" with a capital except at the start of a sentence or as the first word of a title (The Lion King). isiXhosa writes the capital after the prefix: isiXhosa, isiNgesi, uThando.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
---
Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)