Welcome to Lesson 32 of the Elizabethan English course. This lesson addresses the preposition by, one of the most versatile words in Early Modern English, serving as marker of agency, instrument, proximity, oath, and temporal deadline.
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FAQ: What does “by” mean in Elizabethan English?
The preposition by (pronounced /bəɪ/ in Original Pronunciation, with a slightly lower diphthong than modern /baɪ/) carries multiple functions in Shakespeare’s English: it marks the agent in passive constructions (”struck by lightning”), indicates means or instrument (”by the sword”), denotes proximity (”stand by the door”), forms oaths and asseverations (”By my troth!”), and establishes temporal limits (”by nightfall”). The word appears in numerous set phrases still familiar today, alongside distinctly Elizabethan expressions now fallen from use.
This lesson presents 30 examples demonstrating “by” across its various semantic domains, with particular attention to pronunciation features that distinguish Early Modern English from contemporary speech.
Key Takeaways: -
By marks passive agents: “The deed was done by villains.” -
By indicates instrument or means: “He liveth by his wits.” -
By forms oaths: “By Heaven!” “By my troth!” -
By denotes proximity: “Come, sit thee by me.” -
By sets temporal deadlines: “Return by Candlemas.” -
Period pronunciation features fuller vowels and rhotic consonants.
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Early Modern English (Original Pronunciation) Conventions:
The IPA transcriptions in this lesson reflect Shakespearean-era pronunciation (c. 1590–1620), which differs significantly from modern Received Pronunciation or General American:
Vowel Differences: -
Long /iː/ had not fully completed the Great Vowel Shift; words like “by” used /əɪ/ rather than modern /aɪ/ -
The FACE vowel was pronounced /ɛː/ (closer to “eh”) rather than modern /eɪ/ -
The GOAT vowel was pronounced /oː/ rather than modern /əʊ/
Consonant Differences: -
All R’s were pronounced (fully rhotic): “sword” = /swoːrd/, not /sɔːd/ -
Initial /kn/, /gn/, /wr/ clusters were still pronounced: “knight” = /knəɪt/ -
The suffix -tion was pronounced /sjən/ or /tɪən/, not modern /ʃən/
Stress Patterns: -
Stress often fell on different syllables than modern English -
Final syllables retained fuller vowel quality
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32.1a The letter was writ by mine own hand. 32.1b The /ðə/ the letter /ˈlɛtər/ letter was /wɒz/ was writ /wrɪt/ written by /bəɪ/ by mine /məɪn/ my own /oːn/ own hand /hænd/ hand
32.2a By Heaven, I will not suffer this indignity! 32.2b By /bəɪ/ by Heaven /ˈhɛvən/ Heaven I /əɪ/ I will /wɪl/ will not /nɒt/ not suffer /ˈsʊfər/ endure this /ðɪs/ this indignity /ɪnˈdɪgnɪtiː/ insult
32.3a Stand thou by the window and keep watch. 32.3b Stand /stænd/ stand thou /ðaʊ/ you-FAM by /bəɪ/ near the /ðə/ the window /ˈwɪndoː/ window and /ænd/ and keep /keːp/ keep watch /wɒtʃ/ watch
32.4a The villain was apprehended by the constable. 32.4b The /ðə/ the villain /ˈvɪlən/ villain was /wɒz/ was apprehended /æprɪˈhɛndɪd/ seized by /bəɪ/ by the /ðə/ the constable /ˈkʊnstəbəl/ constable
32.5a By my troth, thou speakest true. 32.5b By /bəɪ/ by my /məɪ/ my troth /troːθ/ truth-OATH thou /ðaʊ/ you-FAM speakest /ˈspeːkɪst/ speak-2SG true /truː/ truly
32.6a He doth live by his wits alone. 32.6b He /hiː/ he doth /dʊθ/ does-AUX live /lɪv/ live by /bəɪ/ by-means-of his /hɪz/ his wits /wɪts/ cleverness alone /əˈloːn/ only
32.7a The proclamation was read by the herald. 32.7b The /ðə/ the proclamation /prɒkləˈmɛːsjən/ announcement was /wɒz/ was read /reːd/ read by /bəɪ/ by the /ðə/ the herald /ˈhɛrəld/ herald
32.8a By and by, the truth shall be known. 32.8b By /bəɪ/ soon and /ænd/ and by /bəɪ/ soon the /ðə/ the truth /truːθ/ truth shall /ʃæl/ shall be /biː/ be known /knoːn/ known
32.9a The kingdom was won by valour, not by treachery. 32.9b The /ðə/ the kingdom /ˈkɪŋdəm/ kingdom was /wɒz/ was won /wʊn/ won by /bəɪ/ by valour /ˈvæljər/ courage not /nɒt/ not by /bəɪ/ by treachery /ˈtrɛtʃəriː/ betrayal
32.10a Come, sit thee by me and hear my tale. 32.10b Come /kʊm/ come sit /sɪt/ sit thee /ðiː/ yourself-FAM by /bəɪ/ beside me /miː/ me and /ænd/ and hear /hiːr/ hear my /məɪ/ my tale /tɛːl/ story
32.11a The infection spreadeth by foul airs and miasmas. 32.11b The /ðə/ the infection /ɪnˈfɛksjən/ disease spreadeth /ˈsprɛdɪθ/ spreads-3SG by /bəɪ/ through foul /faʊl/ foul airs /ɛːrz/ airs and /ænd/ and miasmas /məɪˈæzməz/ vapours
32.12a By the mass, this is excellent sport! 32.12b By /bəɪ/ by the /ðə/ the mass /mæs/ Mass-OATH this /ðɪs/ this is /ɪz/ is excellent /ˈɛksələnt/ excellent sport /spoːrt/ entertainment
32.13a Thou must return by Michaelmas or forfeit all. 32.13b Thou /ðaʊ/ you-FAM must /mʊst/ must return /rɪˈtəːrn/ return by /bəɪ/ before Michaelmas /ˈmɪkəlməs/ Michaelmas or /oːr/ or forfeit /ˈfoːrfɪt/ lose all /ɔːl/ all
32.14a The message was conveyed by secret means. 32.14b The /ðə/ the message /ˈmɛsɪdʒ/ message was /wɒz/ was conveyed /kənˈvɛːd/ carried by /bəɪ/ by secret /ˈsiːkrɪt/ secret means /miːnz/ methods
32.15a By your leave, I shall speak plainly. 32.15b By /bəɪ/ with your /jʊr/ your leave /liːv/ permission I /əɪ/ I shall /ʃæl/ shall speak /speːk/ speak plainly /ˈplɛːnliː/ directly
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32.1 The letter was writ by mine own hand. “The letter was written by my own hand.”
32.2 By Heaven, I will not suffer this indignity! “By Heaven, I will not endure this insult!”
32.3 Stand thou by the window and keep watch. “Stand near the window and keep watch.”
32.4 The villain was apprehended by the constable. “The criminal was arrested by the constable.”
32.5 By my troth, thou speakest true. “Upon my word, you speak truly.”
32.6 He doth live by his wits alone. “He lives by his cleverness alone.”
32.7 The proclamation was read by the herald. “The announcement was read by the herald.”
32.8 By and by, the truth shall be known. “Soon, the truth shall become known.”
32.9 The kingdom was won by valour, not by treachery. “The kingdom was won through courage, not through betrayal.”
32.10 Come, sit thee by me and hear my tale. “Come, sit beside me and hear my story.”
32.11 The infection spreadeth by foul airs and miasmas. “The disease spreads through foul airs and vapours.”
32.12 By the mass, this is excellent sport! “By the Mass, this is excellent entertainment!”
32.13 Thou must return by Michaelmas or forfeit all. “You must return before Michaelmas or lose everything.”
32.14 The message was conveyed by secret means. “The message was delivered through secret methods.”
32.15 By your leave, I shall speak plainly. “With your permission, I shall speak directly.”
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32.1 The letter was writ by mine own hand.
32.2 By Heaven, I will not suffer this indignity!
32.3 Stand thou by the window and keep watch.
32.4 The villain was apprehended by the constable.
32.5 By my troth, thou speakest true.
32.6 He doth live by his wits alone.
32.7 The proclamation was read by the herald.
32.8 By and by, the truth shall be known.
32.9 The kingdom was won by valour, not by treachery.
32.10 Come, sit thee by me and hear my tale.
32.11 The infection spreadeth by foul airs and miasmas.
32.12 By the mass, this is excellent sport!
32.13 Thou must return by Michaelmas or forfeit all.
32.14 The message was conveyed by secret means.
32.15 By your leave, I shall speak plainly.
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These are the grammar rules for “by” in Elizabethan English.
The preposition by (/bəɪ/) functions across six primary semantic domains in Early Modern English, each with distinct grammatical patterns:
1. Agent Marker (Passive Voice)
When a sentence uses the passive voice, by introduces the agent—the person or force performing the action. This construction was fully developed by Shakespeare’s time and remains unchanged in modern English.
Pattern: SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE + by + AGENT -
“The letter was writ by mine own hand.” -
“The villain was apprehended by the constable.”
Note the past participle “writ” (modern “written”)—Elizabethan English retained many strong verb forms now regularised.
2. Instrument or Means
By indicates the tool, method, or means through which an action is accomplished.
Pattern: VERB + by + NOUN (instrument/means) -
“He doth live by his wits.” -
“The kingdom was won by valour.” -
“The message was conveyed by secret means.”
This overlaps with the agent function but emphasises method rather than actor.
3. Proximity (Spatial)
By indicates nearness or position beside something.
Pattern: VERB + by + NOUN (location) -
“Stand thou by the window.” -
“Sit thee by me.”
The reflexive pronoun “thee” (accusative familiar) appears in the construction “sit thee by me,” where modern English would simply say “sit by me.”
4. Oaths and Asseverations
Elizabethan English employed numerous oath formulae beginning with by, invoking sacred or significant things to underscore sincerity. These range from the genuinely religious to the euphamistic:
Strong oaths: By Heaven! /bəɪ ˈhɛvən/, By God! /bəɪ gɒd/ Moderate oaths: By the mass! /bəɪ ðə mæs/, By my troth! /bəɪ məɪ troːθ/ Mild oaths: By my faith!, By your leave! (polite request)
The oath “By my troth” invokes one’s pledged word or truth—”troth” being cognate with “truth” and “betroth.”
5. Temporal Deadline
By establishes a time limit by which something must occur.
Pattern: VERB + by + TIME EXPRESSION -
“Thou must return by Michaelmas.”
Elizabethans reckoned time by feast days (Michaelmas, Candlemas, Lady Day, Midsummer) as much as by calendar dates.
6. Idiomatic Expressions
By and by /bəɪ ænd bəɪ/ — “soon, presently, before long”
This doubled construction indicates imminent future action. It appears frequently in Shakespeare, sometimes with urgency, sometimes with vagueness.
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
Confusing agent and instrument: “Struck by lightning” (agent—lightning acts) versus “Killed by the sword” (instrument—the sword is wielded by someone).
Overusing oath formulae: These carried genuine force in the period. “By God” could be prosecuted as blasphemy; hence the proliferation of euphemisms like “’Zounds” (God’s wounds) and “By’r lady” (By Our Lady).
Grammatical Summary:
The preposition by governs the objective case in all uses. With pronouns: “by me” (not by I), “by thee” (not by thou), “by him/her/them.” The dative-accusative distinction had collapsed by Shakespeare’s time, so “by me” serves all functions.
In questions and relative clauses, by may be stranded or fronted: “By whom was this done?” (formal) or “Who was this done by?” (colloquial, though less common in literary register).
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Oaths and Social Hierarchy
The oath formulae using by reveal much about Elizabethan society. Strong oaths (”By God,” “By Heaven”) were reserved for moments of genuine passion and could mark the speaker as coarse or impious if overused. Gentlemen moderated their speech with softer oaths (”By my troth,” “By your leave”), while the truly pious avoided such invocations altogether—a trait Shakespeare associates with Puritanical characters.
The 1606 Act to Restrain Abuses of Players prohibited the use of God’s name on stage, leading dramatists to substitute “Heaven” and other euphemisms. Thus, Folio texts often differ from earlier Quartos in their oath vocabulary.
“By and by” — Temporal Ambiguity
The expression “by and by” shifted meaning during the Early Modern period. In Shakespeare’s earlier works, it often means “immediately”; in later usage, it softened to “soon” or “eventually.” This semantic drift illustrates how seemingly simple phrases carried contextual weight that modern readers may miss.
Regional Variations
London pronunciation, as reflected in these transcriptions, represented the emerging standard. Provincial speakers, country characters, and servants in Shakespeare’s plays often display dialectal features—dropped initial /h/, different vowel qualities, and simplified consonant clusters. The preposition by remained stable across dialects, though oath formulae varied regionally.
Idiomatic Expressions Using “By”
“By the book” — according to proper form or rules “By rote” — from memory, without understanding “By heart” — memorised thoroughly “By degrees” — gradually, step by step “By fits and starts” — intermittently, irregularly “Stand by” — remain ready, support “Pass by” — overlook, ignore; also to walk past “Come by” — obtain, acquire “Set store by” — value highly
Many of these expressions entered the language during the Elizabethan period and remain current, demonstrating the stability of by as a grammatical element.
Syntactical Peculiarities
The construction “by which” served as a relative pronoun equivalent in formal prose:
“The means by which he achieved his end remain obscure.”
This construction, though grammatically available, competed with simpler forms like “whereby” (a single-word equivalent) and “that...by” (split construction). Literary style favoured the more Latinate “by which” in elevated discourse.
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From William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Act I, Scene V (c. 1600)
The Ghost reveals the manner of his death to Prince Hamlet:
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
‘Tis /tɪz/ it-is given /ˈgɪvən/ given out /aʊt/ forth that, /ðæt/ that sleeping /ˈsliːpɪŋ/ sleeping in /ɪn/ in mine /məɪn/ my orchard, /ˈoːrtʃərd/ garden a /ə/ a serpent /ˈsɛrpənt/ snake stung /stʊŋ/ bit me; /miː/ me
So /soː/ thus the /ðə/ the whole /hoːl/ whole ear /iːr/ ear of /əv/ of Denmark /ˈdɛnmɑːrk/ Denmark is /ɪz/ is by /bəɪ/ by a /ə/ a forgèd /ˈfoːrdʒɪd/ falsified process /ˈproːsɛs/ account of /əv/ of my /məɪ/ my death /dɛθ/ death rankly /ˈræŋkliː/ foully abused. /əˈbjuːzd/ deceived
But /bʊt/ but know, /knoː/ know thou /ðaʊ/ you-FAM noble /ˈnoːbəl/ noble youth, /juːθ/ youth the /ðə/ the serpent /ˈsɛrpənt/ serpent that /ðæt/ that did /dɪd/ did sting /stɪŋ/ sting thy /ðəɪ/ your-FAM father’s /ˈfɑːðərz/ father’s life /ləɪf/ life now /naʊ/ now wears /wɛːrz/ wears his /hɪz/ his crown. /kraʊn/ crown
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
‘Tis given out that, sleeping in mine orchard, A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark Is by a forgèd process of my death Rankly abused. But know, thou noble youth, The serpent that did sting thy father’s life Now wears his crown.
“It is publicly claimed that, while I slept in my garden, a snake bit me; thus all of Denmark has been grossly deceived by a false account of my death. But know this, noble youth: the serpent that took your father’s life now wears his crown.”
F-C: Original Text Only
‘Tis given out that, sleeping in mine orchard, A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark Is by a forgèd process of my death Rankly abused. But know, thou noble youth, The serpent that did sting thy father’s life Now wears his crown.
F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes
This passage demonstrates by functioning as the agent marker in a complex passive construction:
“the whole ear of Denmark / Is by a forgèd process of my death / Rankly abused”
The agent phrase “by a forgèd process” identifies what has deceived Denmark—not a person, but a falsified narrative. Shakespeare places “by” and its object between the auxiliary “Is” and the past participle “abused,” a word order available in Early Modern English that heightens rhetorical emphasis.
Vocabulary notes: -
‘Tis — contraction of “it is,” common in verse for metrical reasons -
mine orchard — “mine” before vowels; “my” before consonants (like a/an) -
forgèd — the grave accent indicates the -ed is pronounced as a separate syllable /ɪd/ for metrical purposes -
process — pronounced /ˈproːsɛs/ with long /oː/, meaning “narrative, account” -
rankly — “foully, grossly” (from “rank” meaning corrupt, foul) -
abused — “deceived” (not modern sense of “mistreated”)
The serpent imagery operates on multiple levels: literal (the cover story), biblical (Edenic temptation), and political (Claudius as serpent/usurper).
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A scene in the manner of Elizabethan court drama, demonstrating “by” in theatrical context.
Genre Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
32.16a By your Majesty’s gracious leave, I bring ill tidings. 32.16b By /bəɪ/ with your /jʊr/ your Majesty’s /ˈmædʒɪstiːz/ Majesty’s gracious /ˈgrɛːʃəs/ gracious leave /liːv/ permission I /əɪ/ I bring /brɪŋ/ bring ill /ɪl/ bad tidings /ˈtəɪdɪŋz/ news
32.17a The northern rebellion was suppressed by Lord Hastings. 32.17b The /ðə/ the northern /ˈnoːrðərn/ northern rebellion /rɪˈbɛljən/ uprising was /wɒz/ was suppressed /səˈprɛst/ crushed by /bəɪ/ by Lord /loːrd/ Lord Hastings /ˈhɛːstɪŋz/ Hastings
32.18a Yet by what treacherous means he achieved this victory! 32.18b Yet /jɛt/ yet by /bəɪ/ by what /ʍæt/ what treacherous /ˈtrɛtʃərəs/ treacherous means /miːnz/ methods he /hiː/ he achieved /əˈtʃiːvd/ won this /ðɪs/ this victory /ˈvɪktəriː/ victory
32.19a By my faith, I like not his manner of proceeding. 32.19b By /bəɪ/ by my /məɪ/ my faith /fɛːθ/ faith-OATH I /əɪ/ I like /ləɪk/ like not /nɒt/ not his /hɪz/ his manner /ˈmænər/ way of /əv/ of proceeding /prəˈsiːdɪŋ/ acting
32.20a The prisoners were executed by his command, without trial. 32.20b The /ðə/ the prisoners /ˈprɪzənərz/ captives were /wɛːr/ were executed /ˈɛksɪkjuːtɪd/ put-to-death by /bəɪ/ by his /hɪz/ his command /kəˈmɑːnd/ order without /wɪðˈaʊt/ without trial /ˈtrəɪəl/ trial
32.21a This passeth all law; by Heaven, it shall be answered! 32.21b This /ðɪs/ this passeth /ˈpɑːsɪθ/ exceeds-3SG all /ɔːl/ all law /lɔː/ law by /bəɪ/ by Heaven /ˈhɛvən/ Heaven-OATH it /ɪt/ it shall /ʃæl/ shall be /biː/ be answered /ˈɑːnsərd/ accounted-for
32.22a Stand by, sirrah, whilst I confer with the ambassador. 32.22b Stand /stænd/ stand by /bəɪ/ aside sirrah /ˈsɪrə/ fellow-INFERIOR whilst /ʍəɪlst/ while I /əɪ/ I confer /kənˈfɛːr/ speak with /wɪð/ with the /ðə/ the ambassador /æmˈbæsədər/ ambassador
32.23a By and by, you shall know our pleasure in this matter. 32.23b By /bəɪ/ soon and /ænd/ and by /bəɪ/ soon you /juː/ you-FORMAL shall /ʃæl/ shall know /knoː/ know our /aʊr/ our-ROYAL pleasure /ˈplɛːʒər/ will in /ɪn/ in this /ðɪs/ this matter /ˈmætər/ matter
32.24a The treaty was sealed by both sovereigns at Calais. 32.24b The /ðə/ the treaty /ˈtriːtiː/ agreement was /wɒz/ was sealed /siːld/ ratified by /bəɪ/ by both /boːθ/ both sovereigns /ˈsɒvrɪnz/ kings at /æt/ at Calais /ˈkælɪs/ Calais
32.25a I judge a man by his deeds, not by his professions. 32.25b I /əɪ/ I judge /dʒʊdʒ/ judge a /ə/ a man /mæn/ man by /bəɪ/ by his /hɪz/ his deeds /diːdz/ actions not /nɒt/ not by /bəɪ/ by his /hɪz/ his professions /prəˈfɛsjənz/ claims
32.26a By the grace of God, we shall prevail against our enemies. 32.26b By /bəɪ/ by the /ðə/ the grace /grɛːs/ favour of /əv/ of God /gɒd/ God we /wiː/ we shall /ʃæl/ shall prevail /prɪˈvɛːl/ triumph against /əˈgɛːnst/ against our /aʊr/ our enemies /ˈɛnɪmiːz/ enemies
32.27a Let the dispatch be sent by the swiftest rider. 32.27b Let /lɛt/ let the /ðə/ the dispatch /dɪsˈpætʃ/ message be /biː/ be sent /sɛnt/ sent by /bəɪ/ by the /ðə/ the swiftest /ˈswɪftɪst/ fastest rider /ˈrəɪdər/ messenger
32.28a By cock and pie, I never heard such villainy! 32.28b By /bəɪ/ by cock /kɒk/ God-EUPHEM and /ænd/ and pie /pəɪ/ service-book-EUPHEM I /əɪ/ I never /ˈnɛvər/ never heard /hɛːrd/ heard such /sʊtʃ/ such villainy /ˈvɪləniː/ wickedness
32.29a The castle was taken by storm ere dawn. 32.29b The /ðə/ the castle /ˈkɑːsəl/ fortress was /wɒz/ was taken /ˈtɛːkən/ captured by /bəɪ/ by storm /stoːrm/ assault ere /ɛːr/ before dawn /dɔːn/ dawn
32.30a By my sword, I swear to avenge this wrong or die in the attempt. 32.30b By /bəɪ/ by my /məɪ/ my sword /swoːrd/ sword-OATH I /əɪ/ I swear /swɛːr/ vow to /tuː/ to avenge /əˈvɛndʒ/ avenge this /ðɪs/ this wrong /wrɒŋ/ injustice or /oːr/ or die /dəɪ/ die in /ɪn/ in the /ðə/ the attempt /əˈtɛmpt/ effort
Genre Part B: Natural Sentences
32.16 By your Majesty’s gracious leave, I bring ill tidings. “With Your Majesty’s kind permission, I bring bad news.”
32.17 The northern rebellion was suppressed by Lord Hastings. “The northern uprising was crushed by Lord Hastings.”
32.18 Yet by what treacherous means he achieved this victory! “Yet by what treacherous methods he won this victory!”
32.19 By my faith, I like not his manner of proceeding. “Upon my faith, I do not like his way of acting.”
32.20 The prisoners were executed by his command, without trial. “The captives were put to death by his order, without trial.”
32.21 This passeth all law; by Heaven, it shall be answered! “This exceeds all law; by Heaven, it shall be accounted for!”
32.22 Stand by, sirrah, whilst I confer with the ambassador. “Stand aside, fellow, while I speak with the ambassador.”
32.23 By and by, you shall know our pleasure in this matter. “Presently, you shall learn our will in this matter.”
32.24 The treaty was sealed by both sovereigns at Calais. “The agreement was ratified by both kings at Calais.”
32.25 I judge a man by his deeds, not by his professions. “I judge a man by his actions, not by his claims.”
32.26 By the grace of God, we shall prevail against our enemies. “By the grace of God, we shall triumph over our enemies.”
32.27 Let the dispatch be sent by the swiftest rider. “Let the message be sent by the fastest messenger.”
32.28 By cock and pie, I never heard such villainy! “Good heavens, I never heard such wickedness!”
32.29 The castle was taken by storm ere dawn. “The fortress was captured by assault before dawn.”
32.30 By my sword, I swear to avenge this wrong or die in the attempt. “Upon my sword, I vow to avenge this injustice or die trying.”
Genre Part C: Elizabethan Text Only
32.16 By your Majesty’s gracious leave, I bring ill tidings.
32.17 The northern rebellion was suppressed by Lord Hastings.
32.18 Yet by what treacherous means he achieved this victory!
32.19 By my faith, I like not his manner of proceeding.
32.20 The prisoners were executed by his command, without trial.
32.21 This passeth all law; by Heaven, it shall be answered!
32.22 Stand by, sirrah, whilst I confer with the ambassador.
32.23 By and by, you shall know our pleasure in this matter.
32.24 The treaty was sealed by both sovereigns at Calais.
32.25 I judge a man by his deeds, not by his professions.
32.26 By the grace of God, we shall prevail against our enemies.
32.27 Let the dispatch be sent by the swiftest rider.
32.28 By cock and pie, I never heard such villainy!
32.29 The castle was taken by storm ere dawn.
32.30 By my sword, I swear to avenge this wrong or die in the attempt.
Genre Part D: Grammar Notes for Dramatic Dialogue
This dialogue illustrates by across formal court register:
Royal “we”: “you shall know our pleasure” — monarchs use the plural pronoun for singular self-reference, a convention of majesty.
Address terms with “by”: “By your Majesty’s leave” shows the formulaic politeness required when addressing royalty. The phrase functions as a request for permission while simultaneously showing deference.
Oath gradation: The scene progresses through oath intensity: -
“By your leave” (polite formula) -
“By my faith” (moderate oath) -
“By Heaven” (strong oath) -
“By cock and pie” (comic euphemism) -
“By my sword” (solemn military oath)
“By cock and pie”: This oath euphemistically disguises “By God and the Ordinal” (the service book containing liturgical rites). “Cock” substitutes for “God”; “pie” derives from the Latin pica (magpie), a term for the service book with its black-and-white pages.
Verbal conjugation with “-eth”: “passeth” (passes), “spreadeth” (spreads) — the third-person singular ending -eth was becoming archaic by 1600, replaced by -s/-es, but persisted in elevated or formal registers.
“Ere” versus “before”: The preposition “ere” /ɛːr/ (”before”) appears in “ere dawn.” This word was already somewhat literary in Shakespeare’s time, used for poetic or formal effect.
“Taken by storm”: A military idiom meaning captured through direct assault rather than siege. The phrase “by storm” functions instrumentally, describing the method of capture.
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Key Period Pronunciation Features in This Lesson:
Modern RP Elizabethan OP Examples /aɪ/ (PRICE) /əɪ/ or /ʌɪ/ by, I, my, life /eɪ/ (FACE) /ɛː/ grace, tale, faith /əʊ/ (GOAT) /oː/ know, own, sword /ʃən/ (-tion) /sjən/ or /tɪən/ proclamation, infection silent /r/ pronounced /r/ sword /swoːrd/, heard /hɛːrd/ silent /k/ pronounced /k/ know /knoː/, knight /knəɪt/
The preposition “by”: Pronounced /bəɪ/ with a central-starting diphthong, slightly lower than modern /baɪ/. In rapid speech, unstressed “by” reduced to /bɪ/ or /bə/.
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The Latinum Institute has been creating language learning materials for autodidacts since 2006. This Elizabethan English course applies the proven interlinear construed text methodology to Early Modern English, helping modern learners access Shakespeare, the King James Bible, and other Renaissance texts with confidence.
Course Index:
https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
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The Construed Text Advantage:
The interlinear format presents each word with its pronunciation and meaning, allowing learners to internalise grammatical patterns naturally. Rather than memorising rules in isolation, students encounter grammar in authentic contexts, building intuitive understanding through repeated exposure.
Why Study Elizabethan English?
Understanding Early Modern English unlocks the greatest literary treasures in the language: Shakespeare’s plays and sonnets, the King James Bible, Marlowe’s mighty lines, Donne’s metaphysical poetry, and the prose of Bacon and Hooker. This course bridges the gap between modern English and its Renaissance ancestor, revealing continuities and transformations that illuminate both periods.
Original Pronunciation Resources:
For audio examples of Shakespearean pronunciation, consult David Crystal’s Pronouncing Shakespeare and the Globe Theatre’s Original Pronunciation productions. The IPA transcriptions in these lessons follow Crystal’s reconstruction.
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✓ Lesson 032 Elizabethan English complete
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