This lesson examines who, the interrogative and relative pronoun used for persons in Early Modern English (c. 1590–1620). In the Elizabethan period, who retained its full case system more rigorously than in Modern English: who (nominative), whom (accusative/dative), and whose (genitive). The distinction between subjective and objective cases remained grammatically enforced in educated speech and writing.
Early Modern English speakers pronounced who with a clear aspirated /h/ sound, unlike some modern dialects that drop initial /h/. The vowel was a long close back rounded vowel /uː/, producing a sound similar to modern pronunciation but with stronger emphasis on the initial consonant.
Who served both interrogative functions (asking questions about identity) and relative functions (introducing dependent clauses). Unlike Modern English, where “that” often replaces “who” in relative clauses, Elizabethan writers maintained clearer distinctions, using who primarily for persons of higher status or when emphasizing human agency.
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FAQ: What does “who” mean in Elizabethan English? In Elizabethan English, “who” functions as an interrogative pronoun asking about personal identity and as a relative pronoun connecting clauses about persons. It maintains the nominative case, with “whom” for objects and “whose” for possession—distinctions more strictly observed than in contemporary usage.
Key Takeaways: -
Who /huː/ maintains full case distinctions: who/whom/whose -
Initial /h/ pronounced clearly in educated speech -
Relative who reserved primarily for human referents -
Whom /huːm/ required after prepositions and as direct object -
Period pronunciation featured rhotic /r/ in related words
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Period Pronunciation Features:
The following IPA transcriptions reflect reconstructed Original Pronunciation (OP) based on the scholarship of David Crystal and historical orthoepists. Key differences from Modern English include:
Vowels: -
Long /uː/ in “who, whom, whose” — similar to modern but with stronger lip rounding -
The suffix -tion pronounced /tɪən/ or /sɪən/, not modern /ʃən/ -
Long /aː/ in “father” type words often shorter /a/ -
The diphthong in “my, thy, I” pronounced /əɪ/
Consonants: -
Rhotic /r/ — all written r’s pronounced, including after vowels -
Initial /h/ aspirated clearly in “who, whom, whose” -
Medial /t/ in “-tion” preserved, not palatalized to /ʃ/
Stress: -
Many polysyllabic words stressed differently: conFISCate, adVERtise -
French loanwords retained original stress patterns
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41.1a Who stands without the gate and craves admittance?
41.1b Who (/huː/) who stands (/standz/) stands without (/wɪθˈaʊt/) outside the (/ðə/) the gate (/geɪt/) gate and (/and/) and craves (/kreɪvz/) desires admittance (/ədˈmɪtəns/) entry
41.2a The gentleman who brought these letters is arrived from France.
41.2b The (/ðə/) the gentleman (/ˈdʒɛntl̩man/) gentleman who (/huː/) who-NOM brought (/brɔːt/) brought these (/ðiːz/) these letters (/ˈlɛtərz/) letters is (/ɪz/) is arrived (/əˈrəɪvd/) arrived from (/frɔm/) from France (/frants/) France
41.3a I know not who hath done this bloody deed.
41.3b I (/əɪ/) I know (/noː/) know not (/nɔt/) not who (/huː/) who-NOM hath (/haθ/) has done (/dʌn/) done this (/ðɪs/) this bloody (/ˈblʌdi/) bloody deed (/diːd/) deed
41.4a To whom shall I deliver these sad tidings?
41.4b To (/tuː/) to whom (/huːm/) whom-DAT shall (/ʃal/) shall I (/əɪ/) I deliver (/dɪˈlɪvər/) deliver these (/ðiːz/) these sad (/sad/) sad tidings (/ˈtəɪdɪŋz/) tidings
41.5a She whose beauty doth outshine the stars is come.
41.5b She (/ʃiː/) she whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN beauty (/ˈbjuːti/) beauty doth (/dʌθ/) does outshine (/aʊtˈʃəɪn/) outshine the (/ðə/) the stars (/starz/) stars is (/ɪz/) is come (/kʌm/) come
41.6a Who amongst you will speak against this motion?
41.6b Who (/huː/) who-NOM amongst (/əˈmʌŋkst/) amongst you (/juː/) you will (/wɪl/) will speak (/spiːk/) speak against (/əˈgɛnst/) against this (/ðɪs/) this motion (/ˈmoːtɪən/) motion
41.7a The villain who betrayed our trust shall pay dearly.
41.7b The (/ðə/) the villain (/ˈvɪlən/) villain who (/huː/) who-NOM betrayed (/bɪˈtreɪd/) betrayed our (/aʊr/) our trust (/trʌst/) trust shall (/ʃal/) shall pay (/peɪ/) pay dearly (/ˈdɪərli/) dearly
41.8a With whom didst thou conspire in this enterprise?
41.8b With (/wɪθ/) with whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC didst (/dɪdst/) did-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou conspire (/kənˈspəɪr/) conspire in (/ɪn/) in this (/ðɪs/) this enterprise (/ˈɛntərprəɪz/) enterprise
41.9a The lady whose father serveth the King attendeth here.
41.9b The (/ðə/) the lady (/ˈleɪdi/) lady whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN father (/ˈfaːðər/) father serveth (/ˈsərvəθ/) serves-3SG the (/ðə/) the King (/kɪŋ/) King attendeth (/əˈtɛndəθ/) attends-3SG here (/hɪər/) here
41.10a Who can fathom the depth of his dissimulation?
41.10b Who (/huː/) who-NOM can (/kan/) can fathom (/ˈfaðəm/) fathom the (/ðə/) the depth (/dɛpθ/) depth of (/ɔv/) of his (/hɪz/) his dissimulation (/dɪˌsɪmjuˈleɪsɪən/) dissimulation
41.11a They who would seek preferment must first prove their worth.
41.11b They (/ðeɪ/) they who (/huː/) who-NOM would (/wʊd/) would seek (/siːk/) seek preferment (/prɪˈfərmɛnt/) preferment must (/mʌst/) must first (/fərst/) first prove (/pruːv/) prove their (/ðɛːr/) their worth (/wərθ/) worth
41.12a I have sent unto him who keepeth the prison.
41.12b I (/əɪ/) I have (/hav/) have sent (/sɛnt/) sent unto (/ˈʌntuː/) unto him (/hɪm/) him who (/huː/) who-NOM keepeth (/ˈkiːpəθ/) keeps-3SG the (/ðə/) the prison (/ˈprɪzn̩/) prison
41.13a For whom doth the bell toll at this late hour?
41.13b For (/fɔr/) for whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC doth (/dʌθ/) does the (/ðə/) the bell (/bɛl/) bell toll (/toːl/) toll at (/at/) at this (/ðɪs/) this late (/leɪt/) late hour (/oːr/) hour
41.14a The physician whose skill is renowned throughout the realm cometh anon.
41.14b The (/ðə/) the physician (/fɪˈzɪsɪən/) physician whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN skill (/skɪl/) skill is (/ɪz/) is renowned (/rɪˈnaʊnd/) renowned throughout (/θruːˈaʊt/) throughout the (/ðə/) the realm (/rɛlm/) realm cometh (/ˈkʌməθ/) comes-3SG anon (/əˈnɔn/) soon
41.15a Whosoever shall betray this secret forfeits his life.
41.15b Whosoever (/huːsoʊˈɛvər/) whosoever-NOM shall (/ʃal/) shall betray (/bɪˈtreɪ/) betray this (/ðɪs/) this secret (/ˈsiːkrɪt/) secret forfeits (/ˈfɔrfɪts/) forfeits his (/hɪz/) his life (/ləɪf/) life
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41.1 Who stands without the gate and craves admittance? “Who is standing outside the gate and requests entry?”
41.2 The gentleman who brought these letters is arrived from France. “The gentleman who brought these letters has arrived from France.”
41.3 I know not who hath done this bloody deed. “I do not know who has committed this bloody act.”
41.4 To whom shall I deliver these sad tidings? “To whom should I deliver this sorrowful news?”
41.5 She whose beauty doth outshine the stars is come. “She whose beauty outshines the stars has arrived.”
41.6 Who amongst you will speak against this motion? “Which of you will speak against this proposal?”
41.7 The villain who betrayed our trust shall pay dearly. “The villain who betrayed our trust will pay a heavy price.”
41.8 With whom didst thou conspire in this enterprise? “With whom did you conspire in this undertaking?”
41.9 The lady whose father serveth the King attendeth here. “The lady whose father serves the King is in attendance here.”
41.10 Who can fathom the depth of his dissimulation? “Who can understand the extent of his deception?”
41.11 They who would seek preferment must first prove their worth. “Those who would seek advancement must first demonstrate their merit.”
41.12 I have sent unto him who keepeth the prison. “I have sent a message to the one who keeps the prison.”
41.13 For whom doth the bell toll at this late hour? “For whom does the bell toll at this late hour?”
41.14 The physician whose skill is renowned throughout the realm cometh anon. “The physician whose skill is famous throughout the kingdom comes soon.”
41.15 Whosoever shall betray this secret forfeits his life. “Whoever betrays this secret forfeits his life.”
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41.1 Who stands without the gate and craves admittance?
41.2 The gentleman who brought these letters is arrived from France.
41.3 I know not who hath done this bloody deed.
41.4 To whom shall I deliver these sad tidings?
41.5 She whose beauty doth outshine the stars is come.
41.6 Who amongst you will speak against this motion?
41.7 The villain who betrayed our trust shall pay dearly.
41.8 With whom didst thou conspire in this enterprise?
41.9 The lady whose father serveth the King attendeth here.
41.10 Who can fathom the depth of his dissimulation?
41.11 They who would seek preferment must first prove their worth.
41.12 I have sent unto him who keepeth the prison.
41.13 For whom doth the bell toll at this late hour?
41.14 The physician whose skill is renowned throughout the realm cometh anon.
41.15 Whosoever shall betray this secret forfeits his life.
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These are the grammar rules for WHO in Early Modern English:
The Case System of WHO:
In Elizabethan English, who maintains a full three-case system inherited from Middle English, more rigorously observed than in modern usage:
Nominative: WHO (/huː/) Used as the subject of a verb, whether in questions or relative clauses. Examples: “Who comes here?” “The man who spoke truth...” In Early Modern English, educated speakers never substituted “whom” in subject position—a hypercorrection common in later centuries.
Accusative/Dative: WHOM (/huːm/) Required as the direct object of a verb or after any preposition. Unlike modern colloquial English, Elizabethan grammar demands “whom” in these positions: “Whom did you see?” (direct object), “To whom shall I speak?” (object of preposition), “The lady whom I love...” (relative clause object).
Genitive: WHOSE (/huːz/) Indicates possession or close association. May refer to persons or occasionally things: “The tree whose branches...” was acceptable. “Whose book is this?” “The king whose realm extends...”
Compound Forms:
Whosoever (/huːsoʊˈɛvər/) — emphatic universal pronoun, “any person who” Whomsoever (/huːmsoʊˈɛvər/) — objective case of whosoever Whosesoever (/huːzsoʊˈɛvər/) — genitive of whosoever
WHO vs. WHICH:
Early Modern English generally reserved who for human referents and which for things, though the distinction was less absolute than in Modern English. Animals of significance might take “who,” while groups of people might occasionally take “which.”
WHO in Relative Clauses:
Unlike Modern English, where “that” commonly replaces “who” in restrictive relative clauses, Elizabethan writers preferred who for human subjects of importance. “That” appeared more frequently in casual speech or for non-human referents.
Common Mistakes:
Error 1: Using “whom” as subject — Elizabethans did not say “*Whom did call?” This hypercorrection came later.
Error 2: Omitting “whom” after prepositions — “To who” was considered vulgar; “To whom” remained standard.
Error 3: Confusing “whose” with “who’s” — The contraction “who’s” (who is) existed but was rare in formal writing; “whose” always indicated possession.
Grammatical Summary:
The interrogative who opens questions about identity: “Who art thou?” The relative who introduces clauses modifying human nouns: “The soldier who fought...” After prepositions, whom is obligatory: “by whom, to whom, for whom.” Possession requires whose: “whose hand, whose honour.” The emphatic forms whosoever/whomsoever/whosesoever intensify the universal sense: “Whosoever shall ask, shall receive.”
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Social Dimensions of WHO:
In Elizabethan society, questions of identity carried immense weight. “Who” inquiries could establish social rank, family lineage, guild membership, or religious affiliation—matters of life, death, and preferment. The question “Who art thou?” demanded not merely a name but a declaration of one’s place in the social order.
Formal vs. Informal Usage:
Educated speech maintained strict case distinctions. Court officials, lawyers, clergy, and scholars consistently employed “whom” in objective positions. Lower-class or rural speakers might conflate cases, but this marked them as uneducated—a distinction playwrights exploited for characterization.
Regional Variations:
London speech set the standard for educated pronunciation, but regional varieties persisted. Northern dialects sometimes used “who” where southern speech required “whom.” The actor’s pronunciation at the Globe reflected London norms, though audiences came from across England.
Idiomatic Expressions Using WHO:
“Who goes there?” — Military challenge at night “Who’s within?” — Calling to enter a house “Who stands my friend?” — Seeking advocates or supporters “Who can tell?” — Rhetorical uncertainty “Who would have thought it?” — Expression of surprise
Observations on Period Syntax:
Elizabethan sentences often placed who in emphatic initial position even in statements: “Who doth oppose me, him will I destroy.” This construction, now archaic, gave weight to the human subject’s identity.
Relative clauses with who could be separated from their antecedents by intervening material: “The gentleman came yesterday, who brought letters from the Duke.” This loose construction reflected Latin influence and allowed for complex periodic sentences.
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Source: William Shakespeare, Hamlet (c. 1600–1601), Act III, Scene 1
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
Who (/huː/) who would (/wʊd/) would fardels (/ˈfardl̩z/) burdens bear (/bɛːr/) bear, To (/tuː/) to grunt (/grʌnt/) grunt and (/and/) and sweat (/swɛt/) sweat under (/ˈʌndər/) under a (/ə/) a weary (/ˈwɪəri/) weary life (/ləɪf/) life, But (/bʌt/) but that (/ðat/) that the (/ðə/) the dread (/drɛd/) dread of (/ɔv/) of something (/ˈsʌmθɪŋ/) something after (/ˈaftər/) after death (/dɛθ/) death, The (/ðə/) the undiscovered (/ʌndɪsˈkʌvərd/) undiscovered country (/ˈkʌntri/) country from (/frɔm/) from whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN bourn (/bɔːrn/) boundary No (/noː/) no traveller (/ˈtravələr/) traveler returns (/rɪˈtərnz/) returns, puzzles (/ˈpʌzl̩z/) puzzles the (/ðə/) the will (/wɪl/) will
F-B: Natural Translation
“Who would bear burdens, to grunt and sweat under a weary life, except that the dread of something after death—the undiscovered country from whose border no traveler returns—confounds the will.”
F-C: Original Text
Who would fardels bear, To grunt and sweat under a weary life, But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will
F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes
This passage from Hamlet’s famous soliloquy demonstrates both who as interrogative opener and whose as genitive relative. “Who would fardels bear?” asks rhetorically what person would endure life’s burdens. “From whose bourn” employs whose to modify “country”—the undiscovered land possessing a border from which none return.
Fardels (/ˈfardl̩z/) — burdens, bundles carried on the back Bourn (/bɔːrn/) — boundary, frontier, limit Puzzles — confounds, perplexes (the will cannot decide)
Note the period pronunciation: weary (/ˈwɪəri/) rhymes approximately with “theory,” and life (/ləɪf/) contains the diphthong still transitioning through the Great Vowel Shift.
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A trial scene in an Elizabethan court of law, where questions of identity and accusation require precise use of who, whom, and whose.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
41.16a Who stands accused before this honourable court?
41.16b Who (/huː/) who-NOM stands (/standz/) stands accused (/əˈkjuːzd/) accused before (/bɪˈfɔːr/) before this (/ðɪs/) this honourable (/ˈɔnərəbl̩/) honourable court (/kɔːrt/) court
41.17a The prisoner, upon whom these accusations fall, pleadeth not guilty.
41.17b The (/ðə/) the prisoner (/ˈprɪznər/) prisoner upon (/əˈpɔn/) upon whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC these (/ðiːz/) these accusations (/akjuˈzeɪsɪənz/) accusations fall (/fɔːl/) fall pleadeth (/ˈpliːdəθ/) pleads-3SG not (/nɔt/) not guilty (/ˈgɪlti/) guilty
41.18a Who amongst the witnesses saw the deed committed?
41.18b Who (/huː/) who-NOM amongst (/əˈmʌŋkst/) amongst the (/ðə/) the witnesses (/ˈwɪtnəsɪz/) witnesses saw (/sɔː/) saw the (/ðə/) the deed (/diːd/) deed committed (/kəˈmɪtɪd/) committed
41.19a I call forth him whose testimony shall prove the matter.
41.19b I (/əɪ/) I call (/kɔːl/) call forth (/fɔrθ/) forth him (/hɪm/) him whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN testimony (/ˈtɛstɪmoːni/) testimony shall (/ʃal/) shall prove (/pruːv/) prove the (/ðə/) the matter (/ˈmatər/) matter
41.20a By whom was this false evidence procured?
41.20b By (/bəɪ/) by whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC was (/wɔz/) was this (/ðɪs/) this false (/fɔːls/) false evidence (/ˈɛvɪdəns/) evidence procured (/proːˈkjuːrd/) procured
41.21a The gentleman who giveth testimony sweareth upon his honour.
41.21b The (/ðə/) the gentleman (/ˈdʒɛntl̩man/) gentleman who (/huː/) who-NOM giveth (/ˈgɪvəθ/) gives-3SG testimony (/ˈtɛstɪmoːni/) testimony sweareth (/ˈswɛːrəθ/) swears-3SG upon (/əˈpɔn/) upon his (/hɪz/) his honour (/ˈɔnər/) honour
41.22a To whom did the accused deliver the stolen goods?
41.22b To (/tuː/) to whom (/huːm/) whom-DAT did (/dɪd/) did the (/ðə/) the accused (/əˈkjuːzd/) accused deliver (/dɪˈlɪvər/) deliver the (/ðə/) the stolen (/ˈstoːlən/) stolen goods (/gʊdz/) goods
41.23a She whose house served as meeting place is summoned to appear.
41.23b She (/ʃiː/) she whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN house (/haʊs/) house served (/sərvd/) served as (/az/) as meeting (/ˈmiːtɪŋ/) meeting place (/pleɪs/) place is (/ɪz/) is summoned (/ˈsʌmənd/) summoned to (/tuː/) to appear (/əˈpɪər/) appear
41.24a Who can speak to the character of the accused?
41.24b Who (/huː/) who-NOM can (/kan/) can speak (/spiːk/) speak to (/tuː/) to the (/ðə/) the character (/ˈkarəktər/) character of (/ɔv/) of the (/ðə/) the accused (/əˈkjuːzd/) accused
41.25a The jury, upon whom this decision resteth, must deliberate wisely.
41.25b The (/ðə/) the jury (/ˈdʒuːri/) jury upon (/əˈpɔn/) upon whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC this (/ðɪs/) this decision (/dɪˈsɪzɪən/) decision resteth (/ˈrɛstəθ/) rests-3SG must (/mʌst/) must deliberate (/dɪˈlɪbəreɪt/) deliberate wisely (/ˈwəɪzli/) wisely
41.26a Whosoever beareth false witness shall suffer the same penalty.
41.26b Whosoever (/huːsoʊˈɛvər/) whosoever-NOM beareth (/ˈbɛːrəθ/) bears-3SG false (/fɔːls/) false witness (/ˈwɪtnəs/) witness shall (/ʃal/) shall suffer (/ˈsʌfər/) suffer the (/ðə/) the same (/seɪm/) same penalty (/ˈpɛnəlti/) penalty
41.27a The magistrate, who hath authority in this matter, pronounceth judgement.
41.27b The (/ðə/) the magistrate (/ˈmadʒɪstreɪt/) magistrate who (/huː/) who-NOM hath (/haθ/) has authority (/ɔːˈθɔrɪti/) authority in (/ɪn/) in this (/ðɪs/) this matter (/ˈmatər/) matter pronounceth (/proːˈnaʊnsəθ/) pronounces-3SG judgement (/ˈdʒʌdʒmənt/) judgement
41.28a Against whom do these several charges lie?
41.28b Against (/əˈgɛnst/) against whom (/huːm/) whom-ACC do (/duː/) do these (/ðiːz/) these several (/ˈsɛvrəl/) several charges (/ˈtʃardʒɪz/) charges lie (/ləɪ/) lie
41.29a The advocate whose eloquence moveth hearts pleadeth for mercy.
41.29b The (/ðə/) the advocate (/ˈadvəkət/) advocate whose (/huːz/) whose-GEN eloquence (/ˈɛləkwəns/) eloquence moveth (/ˈmuːvəθ/) moves-3SG hearts (/harts/) hearts pleadeth (/ˈpliːdəθ/) pleads-3SG for (/fɔr/) for mercy (/ˈmərsi/) mercy
41.30a Who amongst us is without fault to cast the first stone?
41.30b Who (/huː/) who-NOM amongst (/əˈmʌŋkst/) amongst us (/ʌs/) us is (/ɪz/) is without (/wɪθˈaʊt/) without fault (/fɔːlt/) fault to (/tuː/) to cast (/kast/) cast the (/ðə/) the first (/fərst/) first stone (/stoːn/) stone
Part B: Natural Sentences
41.16 Who stands accused before this honourable court? “Who is the accused standing before this honorable court?”
41.17 The prisoner, upon whom these accusations fall, pleadeth not guilty. “The prisoner, upon whom these accusations fall, pleads not guilty.”
41.18 Who amongst the witnesses saw the deed committed? “Which of the witnesses saw the act committed?”
41.19 I call forth him whose testimony shall prove the matter. “I summon forth the one whose testimony will prove the case.”
41.20 By whom was this false evidence procured? “By whom was this false evidence obtained?”
41.21 The gentleman who giveth testimony sweareth upon his honour. “The gentleman who gives testimony swears upon his honor.”
41.22 To whom did the accused deliver the stolen goods? “To whom did the accused deliver the stolen goods?”
41.23 She whose house served as meeting place is summoned to appear. “She whose house served as a meeting place is summoned to appear.”
41.24 Who can speak to the character of the accused? “Who can testify regarding the character of the accused?”
41.25 The jury, upon whom this decision resteth, must deliberate wisely. “The jury, upon whom this decision rests, must deliberate wisely.”
41.26 Whosoever beareth false witness shall suffer the same penalty. “Whoever bears false witness shall suffer the same punishment.”
41.27 The magistrate, who hath authority in this matter, pronounceth judgement. “The magistrate, who has authority in this matter, pronounces judgment.”
41.28 Against whom do these several charges lie? “Against whom do these various charges stand?”
41.29 The advocate whose eloquence moveth hearts pleadeth for mercy. “The advocate whose eloquence moves hearts pleads for mercy.”
41.30 Who amongst us is without fault to cast the first stone? “Which of us is without fault so as to cast the first stone?”
Part C: Elizabethan Text Only
41.16 Who stands accused before this honourable court?
41.17 The prisoner, upon whom these accusations fall, pleadeth not guilty.
41.18 Who amongst the witnesses saw the deed committed?
41.19 I call forth him whose testimony shall prove the matter.
41.20 By whom was this false evidence procured?
41.21 The gentleman who giveth testimony sweareth upon his honour.
41.22 To whom did the accused deliver the stolen goods?
41.23 She whose house served as meeting place is summoned to appear.
41.24 Who can speak to the character of the accused?
41.25 The jury, upon whom this decision resteth, must deliberate wisely.
41.26 Whosoever beareth false witness shall suffer the same penalty.
41.27 The magistrate, who hath authority in this matter, pronounceth judgement.
41.28 Against whom do these several charges lie?
41.29 The advocate whose eloquence moveth hearts pleadeth for mercy.
41.30 Who amongst us is without fault to cast the first stone?
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
This courtroom scene demonstrates the formal precision required in legal Elizabethan English. Note the consistent observance of case distinctions:
WHO as Subject (Nominative): Examples 41.16, 41.18, 41.21, 41.24, 41.26, 41.27, 41.30 — all use “who” for the subject of the verb.
WHOM After Prepositions: Examples 41.17, 41.20, 41.22, 41.25, 41.28 — “upon whom,” “by whom,” “to whom,” “against whom” demand the objective case.
WHOSE for Possession: Examples 41.19, 41.23, 41.29 — “whose testimony,” “whose house,” “whose eloquence” indicate genitive relationship.
Verb Endings in -ETH: Legal and formal registers preserved the third-person singular ending “-eth” (/əθ/) longer than casual speech: “pleadeth, giveth, sweareth, resteth, moveth, pronounceth, beareth.”
Period Legal Vocabulary: -
Procured — obtained (often with implication of improper means) -
Deliberate — consider carefully (verb stressed on second syllable: /dɪˈlɪbəreɪt/) -
Several — separate, distinct (not “many”) -
Advocate — one who pleads another’s cause
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Key Words with Period IPA: -
who — /huː/ (clear initial /h/) -
whom — /huːm/ (never reduced to /əm/) -
whose — /huːz/ (distinct from “who’s” /huːz/) -
whosoever — /huːsoʊˈɛvər/ -
hour — /oːr/ (homophone with “whore” minus /h/) -
accusation — /akjuˈzeɪsɪən/ (not /ʃən/) -
decision — /dɪˈsɪzɪən/ (with /z/ and /ɪən/) -
testimony — /ˈtɛstɪmoːni/ -
authority — /ɔːˈθɔrɪti/ -
deliberate — /dɪˈlɪbəreɪt/
Common Pronunciation Errors for Modern Speakers: -
Dropping initial /h/ in “who, whom, whose” — retain aspiration -
Pronouncing “-tion” as /ʃən/ — use period /tɪən/ or /sɪən/ -
Omitting /r/ after vowels — maintain rhoticity throughout -
Using modern /aɪ/ in “my, thy, I” — slightly centralized /əɪ/ -
Modern /ɪ/ in “-eth” endings — use schwa: /əθ/
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This Elizabethan English course follows the Latinum Institute methodology, developed for autodidact learners since 2006. The interlinear construed text format, adapted from classical language pedagogy, presents Early Modern English systematically for modern readers seeking authentic encounter with Shakespeare’s linguistic world.
Course Index:
https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Latinum Institute Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk
Benefits of the Construed Text Approach:
The word-by-word glossing method allows learners to absorb Elizabethan syntax patterns without constant dictionary consultation. By seeing each word’s grammatical function and pronunciation immediately, students develop intuitive familiarity with period language structures. This approach accelerates comprehension of original texts—plays, poems, legal documents, and correspondence from the era—enabling direct engagement with primary sources.
Original Pronunciation Resources:
This lesson incorporates research from David Crystal’s The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation (2016) and the Original Pronunciation movement at Shakespeare’s Globe. For audio examples of period pronunciation, learners may consult the companion recordings to Crystal’s dictionary and the Globe Theatre’s OP productions.
Why Study Elizabethan English?
Understanding Early Modern English pronunciation and grammar unlocks wordplay, rhymes, and puns invisible to modern readers. When “lines” and “loins” merged as homophones, when “hour” and “ore” sounded identical, when “-tion” retained its Latin character—these features created Shakespeare’s linguistic playground. This course makes that world accessible.
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✓ Lesson 41 Elizabethan English complete
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