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This lesson examines use (/juːz/), one of the most versatile verbs in the English language, as employed by Shakespeare and his contemporaries. In Early Modern English, “use” carried a richer semantic range than in modern usage, encompassing not merely “to employ” but also “to treat,” “to be accustomed,” and “to frequent.” The word derives from Old French user and ultimately from Latin uti (to employ, make use of).
In Elizabethan texts, “use” frequently appears in constructions now archaic: “I use to go” meant “I am accustomed to going,” a sense preserved in the past-tense fossil “used to.” Shakespeare deploys this verb across registers—from servants discussing practical matters to kings contemplating statecraft.
Pronunciation Note: Early Modern English was a rhotic dialect; all /r/ sounds were pronounced. The suffix “-tion” was sounded as /sɪən/, not modern /ʃən/. The PRICE vowel (as in “my,” “time”) began with a schwa: /əɪ/. These features appear throughout the examples below.
FAQ: What does “use” mean in Elizabethan English? In Shakespeare’s language, “use” (verb) means: (1) to employ or make use of, (2) to treat or deal with, (3) to be accustomed or wont, (4) to frequent or haunt, (5) to practice habitually.
Key Takeaways -
“Use” in Elizabethan English carries the modern sense of “employ” plus several now-obsolete meanings -
The construction “use + infinitive” indicated habitual action (equivalent to modern “used to”) -
Shakespeare employs “use” to explore themes of custom, habit, treatment of others, and the exercise of power -
The verb appears frequently with abstract nouns: “use discretion,” “use mercy,” “use occasion” -
Period pronunciation features rhotic /r/, the -tion suffix as /sɪən/, and the schwa-onset diphthong /əɪ/
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57.1a I use this sword in service of my king.
57.1b I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ this (/ðɪs/) DEM.PROX sword (/swɔːrd/) blade in (/ɪn/) PREP service (/ˈsɛrvɪs/) duty of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS king (/kɪŋ/) sovereign
57.2a How dost thou use thy time in idle hours?
57.2b How (/haʊ/) Q.MANNER dost (/dʌst/) AUX.2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) 2SG.NOM.FAM use (/juːz/) employ thy (/ðəɪ/) 2SG.POSS.FAM time (/təɪm/) hours in (/ɪn/) PREP idle (/ˈəɪdl̩/) unoccupied hours (/aʊrz/) periods
57.3a She uses him most cruelly, I fear.
57.3b She (/ʃiː/) 3SG.FEM.NOM uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) treats him (/hɪm/) 3SG.MASC.OBJ most (/moːst/) SUPERL cruelly (/ˈkruːəlɪ/) harshly I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM fear (/fɪːr/) apprehend
57.4a We use to walk abroad at eventide.
57.4b We (/wiː/) 1PL.NOM use (/juːz/) be.accustomed to (/tuː/) INF.MARKER walk (/wɔːk/) ambulate abroad (/əˈbrɔːd/) outside at (/æt/) PREP eventide (/ˈiːvn̩təɪd/) evening
57.5a Use well thy fortune whilst it favours thee.
57.5b Use (/juːz/) employ.IMP well (/wɛl/) ADV.MANNER thy (/ðəɪ/) 2SG.POSS.FAM fortune (/ˈfɔrtʃən/) luck whilst (/wəɪlst/) while it (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT favours (/ˈfeɪvərz/) supports thee (/ðiː/) 2SG.OBJ.FAM
57.6a The practice of discretion I would use in all my dealings.
57.6b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART practice (/ˈpraktɪs/) exercise of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN discretion (/dɪsˈkrɛsɪən/) prudence I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM would (/wʊd/) COND use (/juːz/) employ in (/ɪn/) PREP all (/ɔːl/) every my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS dealings (/ˈdiːlɪŋz/) transactions
57.7a He that uses mercy shall find mercy shown to him.
57.7b He (/hiː/) 3SG.MASC.NOM that (/ðæt/) REL.PRO uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) employs mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion shall (/ʃæl/) FUT find (/fəɪnd/) discover mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion shown (/ʃoːn/) displayed to (/tuː/) PREP him (/hɪm/) 3SG.MASC.OBJ
57.8a They use this tavern for their conspirations.
57.8b They (/ðeɪ/) 3PL.NOM use (/juːz/) frequent this (/ðɪs/) DEM.PROX tavern (/ˈtævərn/) inn for (/fɔːr/) PREP.PURPOSE their (/ðɛːr/) 3PL.POSS conspirations (/kɒnspɪˈreɪsɪənz/) plots
57.9a What art usest thou to paint so fair a face?
57.9b What (/ʍɒt/) Q.DET art (/ɑːrt/) craft usest (/ˈjuːzɪst/) employ.2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) 2SG.NOM.FAM to (/tuː/) INF.MARKER paint (/peɪnt/) depict so (/soː/) INTENS fair (/fɛːr/) beautiful a (/ə/) INDEF.ART face (/feɪs/) countenance
57.10a The king doth use his council wisely in matters of the state.
57.10b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART king (/kɪŋ/) sovereign doth (/dʌθ/) AUX.3SG.PRES use (/juːz/) employ his (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS council (/ˈkaʊnsɪl/) advisors wisely (/ˈwəɪzlɪ/) prudently in (/ɪn/) PREP matters (/ˈmætərz/) affairs of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN the (/ðə/) DEF.ART state (/steɪt/) realm
57.11a I’ll use occasion when it presents itself, and strike with swiftness.
57.11b I’ll (/əɪl/) 1SG.NOM+FUT use (/juːz/) seize occasion (/əˈkeɪzɪən/) opportunity when (/ʍɛn/) CONJ.TEMP it (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT presents (/prɪˈzɛnts/) offers itself (/ɪtˈsɛlf/) REFL and (/ænd/) CONJ strike (/strəɪk/) attack with (/wɪð/) PREP swiftness (/ˈswɪftnɛs/) speed
57.12a The shepherd uses his crook to guide the wandering flock.
57.12b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART shepherd (/ˈʃɛpərd/) herdsman uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) employs his (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS crook (/kruːk/) staff to (/tuː/) INF.MARKER guide (/gəɪd/) direct the (/ðə/) DEF.ART wandering (/ˈwɒndərɪŋ/) straying flock (/flɒk/) sheep
57.13a Use thy wit as weapon ‘gainst the dullards of the court.
57.13b Use (/juːz/) employ.IMP thy (/ðəɪ/) 2SG.POSS.FAM wit (/wɪt/) intelligence as (/æz/) PREP.MANNER weapon (/ˈwɛpən/) armament ‘gainst (/geɪnst/) against the (/ðə/) DEF.ART dullards (/ˈdʌlərdz/) fools of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN the (/ðə/) DEF.ART court (/kɔːrt/) palace
57.14a She hath been used most shamefully by those she trusted.
57.14b She (/ʃiː/) 3SG.FEM.NOM hath (/hæθ/) AUX.3SG been (/biːn/) PASS.PTCP used (/juːzd/) treated most (/moːst/) SUPERL shamefully (/ˈʃeɪmfəlɪ/) disgracefully by (/bəɪ/) PREP.AGENT those (/ðoːz/) DEM.DIST.PL she (/ʃiː/) 3SG.FEM.NOM trusted (/ˈtrʌstɪd/) believed
57.15a Let us use this precious hour to speak of love and constancy.
57.15b Let (/lɛt/) HORT us (/ʌs/) 1PL.OBJ use (/juːz/) employ this (/ðɪs/) DEM.PROX precious (/ˈprɛʃəs/) valuable hour (/aʊr/) time to (/tuː/) INF.MARKER speak (/spiːk/) discourse of (/ɒv/) PREP.TOPIC love (/lʌv/) affection and (/ænd/) CONJ constancy (/ˈkɒnstənsɪ/) faithfulness
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57.1 I use this sword in service of my king. “I employ this blade in my sovereign’s service.”
57.2 How dost thou use thy time in idle hours? “How do you spend your time when you have leisure?”
57.3 She uses him most cruelly, I fear. “She treats him most harshly, I’m afraid.”
57.4 We use to walk abroad at eventide. “We are accustomed to taking walks outside in the evening.”
57.5 Use well thy fortune whilst it favours thee. “Make good use of your luck while it lasts.”
57.6 The practice of discretion I would use in all my dealings. “I would employ prudent judgment in all my transactions.”
57.7 He that uses mercy shall find mercy shown to him. “He who shows compassion shall receive compassion in return.”
57.8 They use this tavern for their conspirations. “They frequent this inn for their plotting.”
57.9 What art usest thou to paint so fair a face? “What technique do you employ to paint such a beautiful countenance?”
57.10 The king doth use his council wisely in matters of the state. “The king employs his advisors wisely in affairs of the realm.”
57.11 I’ll use occasion when it presents itself, and strike with swiftness. “I shall seize the opportunity when it arises and act quickly.”
57.12 The shepherd uses his crook to guide the wandering flock. “The shepherd employs his staff to direct the straying sheep.”
57.13 Use thy wit as weapon ‘gainst the dullards of the court. “Employ your intelligence as a weapon against the fools at court.”
57.14 She hath been used most shamefully by those she trusted. “She has been treated most disgracefully by those she trusted.”
57.15 Let us use this precious hour to speak of love and constancy. “Let us spend this valuable time discussing love and faithfulness.”
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57.1 I use this sword in service of my king.
57.2 How dost thou use thy time in idle hours?
57.3 She uses him most cruelly, I fear.
57.4 We use to walk abroad at eventide.
57.5 Use well thy fortune whilst it favours thee.
57.6 The practice of discretion I would use in all my dealings.
57.7 He that uses mercy shall find mercy shown to him.
57.8 They use this tavern for their conspirations.
57.9 What art usest thou to paint so fair a face?
57.10 The king doth use his council wisely in matters of the state.
57.11 I’ll use occasion when it presents itself, and strike with swiftness.
57.12 The shepherd uses his crook to guide the wandering flock.
57.13 Use thy wit as weapon ‘gainst the dullards of the court.
57.14 She hath been used most shamefully by those she trusted.
57.15 Let us use this precious hour to speak of love and constancy.
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The Verb “Use” in Early Modern English
In Shakespeare’s English, “use” functioned as a versatile verb with several distinct meanings now largely obsolete. Understanding these semantic ranges illuminates passages that might otherwise puzzle modern readers.
Principal Meanings:
1. To employ or make use of (the surviving sense) This remains the core meaning: to put something to practical purpose. -
“I use this sword” — I employ this weapon
2. To treat or deal with (a person) This sense appears frequently when describing interpersonal conduct. -
“She uses him cruelly” — She treats him harshly -
The passive “to be used” often conveyed mistreatment
3. To be accustomed or wont (archaic) The construction “use + infinitive” indicated habitual action: -
“We use to walk abroad” — We are accustomed to walking outside -
This survives only as the past-tense fossil “used to”
4. To frequent or haunt (archaic) “Use” could mean to visit regularly or habitually occupy: -
“They use this tavern” — They frequent this inn
5. To practice habitually Similar to sense 3, emphasizing repeated action: -
“What art usest thou” — What technique do you regularly employ
Conjugation Patterns:
Present tense followed standard Early Modern paradigms: -
I use /juːz/ -
Thou usest /ˈjuːzɪst/ -
He/She useth, uses /ˈjuːzɪθ/, /ˈjuːzɪz/ -
We/Ye/They use /juːz/
The auxiliary “do/doth” provided emphasis or filled metrical requirements: -
“The king doth use” — emphatic present
Period Pronunciation Features:
Early Modern English pronunciation differed significantly from modern Received Pronunciation or General American:
The -tion/-sion Suffix: Pronounced /sɪən/ rather than modern /ʃən/ -
discretion /dɪsˈkrɛsɪən/ -
occasion /əˈkeɪzɪən/ -
conspirations /kɒnspɪˈreɪsɪənz/
Rhoticity: All written ⟨r⟩ was pronounced -
hour /aʊr/ (modern British drops the /r/) -
service /ˈsɛrvɪs/ -
sword /swɔːrd/
The PRICE Vowel: Began with schwa /əɪ/ rather than modern /aɪ/ -
I /əɪ/ -
time /təɪm/ -
strike /strəɪk/ -
my /məɪ/
Wh- Words: Distinguished from w- words with /ʍ/ -
what /ʍɒt/ -
when /ʍɛn/ -
whilst /ʍəɪlst/
Common Learner Mistakes: -
Overlooking “use” as “treat”: Modern readers may miss the interpersonal sense -
Misreading “use to + infinitive”: This is not an error but an archaic habitual construction -
Modernizing pronunciation: Reading “-tion” as /ʃən/ disrupts rhyme schemes and puns -
Dropping r-sounds: Elizabethan English was thoroughly rhotic
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“Use” in Elizabethan Society
The semantic range of “use” reflects Early Modern anxieties about social conduct, practical wisdom, and the proper treatment of others. In a hierarchical society where one’s behavior toward superiors, equals, and inferiors carried enormous weight, how one “used” another person was a matter of moral significance.
The Politics of Usage
Shakespeare frequently deploys “use” in political contexts: kings “use” counsel, subjects “use” time wisely, schemers “use” occasions. The verb implies agency and responsibility—to “use” something is to exercise judgment over it. This made “use” a keyword in Renaissance debates about governance, virtue, and prudence.
Custom and Habit
The sense “to be accustomed” (surviving in “used to”) reflects the importance of custom in Elizabethan thought. Writers from Montaigne to Bacon explored how habit shapes character. When Shakespeare’s characters speak of what they “use to do,” they reveal their natures through their customs.
The Treatment of Persons
The interpersonal sense—”She uses him cruelly”—carried particular moral weight. In a society preoccupied with courtesy, hospitality, and degrees of respect, to “use” someone well or ill was to demonstrate one’s own character as much as to affect another’s well-being.
Frequency and Register
“Use” appeared across all registers in Elizabethan writing: -
Legal documents: concerning the “use” of property (a technical term in law) -
Religious discourse: “using” one’s gifts, “using” mercy -
Everyday speech: practical employment of tools and time -
Poetic language: elevated discussions of fortune, occasion, and virtue
The word’s versatility made it indispensable for writers seeking precision about human action and interaction.
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From The Merchant of Venice (IV.i.184–197) — William Shakespeare, c. 1596–1598
Portia, disguised as a young lawyer, pleads for Shylock to show mercy to Antonio:
F-A: Interlinear Analysis
F.1a The quality of mercy is not strain’d;
F.1b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART quality (/ˈkwɒlɪtɪ/) nature of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG not (/nɒt/) NEG strain’d (/streɪnd/) forced
F.2a It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
F.2b It (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT droppeth (/ˈdrɒpɪθ/) falls.3SG as (/æz/) CONJ.MANNER the (/ðə/) DEF.ART gentle (/ˈdʒɛntl̩/) soft rain (/reɪn/) precipitation from (/frɒm/) PREP heaven (/ˈhɛvn̩/) sky
F.3a Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest:
F.3b Upon (/əˈpɒn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART place (/pleɪs/) spot beneath (/bɪˈniːθ/) below It (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG twice (/twəɪs/) doubly blest (/blɛst/) blessed
F.4a It blesseth him that gives and him that takes.
F.4b It (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT blesseth (/ˈblɛsɪθ/) blesses.3SG him (/hɪm/) 3SG.MASC.OBJ that (/ðæt/) REL.PRO gives (/gɪvz/) bestows and (/ænd/) CONJ him (/hɪm/) 3SG.MASC.OBJ that (/ðæt/) REL.PRO takes (/teɪks/) receives
F.5a ‘Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes
F.5b ‘Tis (/tɪz/) it.is mightiest (/ˈməɪtɪəst/) most.powerful in (/ɪn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART mightiest (/ˈməɪtɪəst/) most.powerful it (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT becomes (/bɪˈkʌmz/) suits
F.6a The throned monarch better than his crown.
F.6b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART throned (/θroːnd/) enthroned monarch (/ˈmɒnərk/) sovereign better (/ˈbɛtər/) more.well than (/ðæn/) COMP his (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS crown (/kraʊn/) diadem
F.7a His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
F.7b His (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS sceptre (/ˈsɛptər/) staff shows (/ʃoːz/) displays the (/ðə/) DEF.ART force (/fɔːrs/) strength of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN temporal (/ˈtɛmpərəl/) earthly power (/paʊər/) authority
F.8a The attribute to awe and majesty,
F.8b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART attribute (/ˈætrɪbjuːt/) symbol to (/tuː/) PREP awe (/ɔː/) reverence and (/ænd/) CONJ majesty (/ˈmædʒɪstɪ/) sovereignty
F.9a Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings.
F.9b Wherein (/ʍɛrˈɪn/) in.which doth (/dʌθ/) AUX.3SG sit (/sɪt/) reside the (/ðə/) DEF.ART dread (/drɛd/) terror and (/ænd/) CONJ fear (/fɪːr/) apprehension of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN kings (/kɪŋz/) sovereigns
F.10a But mercy is above this sceptred sway;
F.10b But (/bʌt/) CONJ.CONTR mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG above (/əˈbʌv/) beyond this (/ðɪs/) DEM.PROX sceptred (/ˈsɛptərd/) royal sway (/sweɪ/) rule
F.11a It is enthroned in the hearts of kings,
F.11b It (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG enthroned (/ɪnˈθroːnd/) seated in (/ɪn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART hearts (/hɑːrts/) souls of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN kings (/kɪŋz/) sovereigns
F.12a It is an attribute to God himself;
F.12b It (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG an (/æn/) INDEF.ART attribute (/ˈætrɪbjuːt/) quality to (/tuː/) PREP God (/gɒd/) divinity himself (/hɪmˈsɛlf/) REFL.EMPH
F.13a And earthly power doth then show likest God’s
F.13b And (/ænd/) CONJ earthly (/ˈɛrθlɪ/) mortal power (/paʊər/) authority doth (/dʌθ/) AUX.3SG then (/ðɛn/) ADV.TEMP show (/ʃoː/) appear likest (/ˈləɪkɪst/) most.like God’s (/gɒdz/) divinity.GEN
F.14a When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew,
F.14b When (/ʍɛn/) CONJ.TEMP mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion seasons (/ˈsiːzn̩z/) tempers justice (/ˈdʒʌstɪs/) law Therefore (/ˈðɛːrfɔːr/) thus Jew (/dʒuː/) Hebrew
F.15a Though justice be thy plea, consider this:
F.15b Though (/ðoː/) CONJ.CONC justice (/ˈdʒʌstɪs/) law be (/biː/) SUBJ.COP thy (/ðəɪ/) 2SG.POSS.FAM plea (/pliː/) argument consider (/kənˈsɪdər/) weigh.IMP this (/ðɪs/) DEM.PROX
F.16a That in the course of justice none of us
F.16b That (/ðæt/) COMP in (/ɪn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART course (/kɔːrs/) path of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN justice (/ˈdʒʌstɪs/) law none (/nʌn/) not.one of (/ɒv/) PREP us (/ʌs/) 1PL.OBJ
F.17a Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy,
F.17b Should (/ʃʊd/) COND.MOD see (/siː/) obtain salvation (/sælˈveɪsɪən/) redemption We (/wiː/) 1PL.NOM do (/duː/) AUX.EMPH pray (/preɪ/) beseech for (/fɔːr/) PREP mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion
F.18a And that same prayer doth teach us all to render
F.18b And (/ænd/) CONJ that (/ðæt/) DEM.DIST same (/seɪm/) selfsame prayer (/prɛːr/) supplication doth (/dʌθ/) AUX.3SG teach (/tiːtʃ/) instruct us (/ʌs/) 1PL.OBJ all (/ɔːl/) every.one to (/tuː/) INF render (/ˈrɛndər/) give
F.19a The deeds of mercy.
F.19b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART deeds (/diːdz/) acts of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
The quality of mercy is not strain’d; It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. ‘Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. But mercy is above this sceptred sway; It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself; And earthly power doth then show likest God’s When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, Though justice be thy plea, consider this: That in the course of justice none of us Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy, And that same prayer doth teach us all to render The deeds of mercy.
“The nature of mercy cannot be forced; it falls as softly as gentle rain from the sky upon the ground below. It is doubly blessed: it blesses both the one who gives it and the one who receives it. It is most powerful in the most powerful; it suits an enthroned king better than his crown does. His sceptre displays the force of earthly power, the symbol of awe and majesty in which resides the terror and fear that kings inspire. But mercy is beyond this royal rule; it is enthroned in the hearts of kings, it is a quality of God himself; and earthly power most resembles God’s when mercy tempers justice. Therefore, Jew, though justice is your argument, consider this: that in the strict course of justice, none of us would obtain salvation. We pray for mercy, and that very prayer teaches us all to perform acts of mercy.”
F-C: Original Text Only
The quality of mercy is not strain’d; It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. ‘Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. But mercy is above this sceptred sway; It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself; And earthly power doth then show likest God’s When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, Though justice be thy plea, consider this: That in the course of justice none of us Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy, And that same prayer doth teach us all to render The deeds of mercy.
F-D: Vocabulary and Grammar Notes
This passage, though not containing the word “use” explicitly, exemplifies the semantic field surrounding it: the treatment of others, the exercise of power, and the “rendering” or giving of mercy as an act one chooses to perform.
Key Vocabulary: -
strain’d — forced, compelled (not “filtered”) -
droppeth — falls (3rd person singular with archaic -eth ending) -
becomes — suits, befits (not “transforms into”) -
temporal — earthly, worldly (as opposed to spiritual) -
sway — rule, dominion -
seasons — tempers, moderates (as seasoning moderates flavor) -
render — give, perform
Grammar Features: -
-eth endings: Archaic 3rd person singular: droppeth, blesseth -
Subjunctive “be”: “Though justice be thy plea” (modern: “Though justice is”) -
Emphatic “do”: “We do pray” adds emphasis -
Relative “wherein”: In which (formal/archaic)
Pronunciation Notes: -
salvation /sælˈveɪsɪən/ — note the /sɪən/ ending -
prayer /prɛːr/ — monosyllabic in period pronunciation
F-E: Literary Commentary
This famous speech demonstrates Shakespeare’s engagement with Renaissance debates about justice, mercy, and the proper “use” of power. Portia argues that the true exercise of royal authority lies not in enforcing strict justice but in showing mercy—in “using” one’s power for compassion.
The vocabulary of “using” pervades the speech’s concerns: power must be wielded, justice must be “seasoned,” mercy must be “rendered.” These are all acts of deliberate employment—the same semantic territory covered by “use.” When Portia says mercy “becomes / The throned monarch better than his crown,” she addresses how rulers should “use” their position: not merely displaying symbols of power but exercising the divine quality of compassion.
The speech draws on Christian theology (the Lord’s Prayer’s “forgive us as we forgive”) and classical rhetoric, demonstrating the period’s characteristic fusion of sources. Its iambic pentameter with frequent feminine endings creates a flowing, almost supplicatory rhythm appropriate to its subject.
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A merchant of uncertain virtue contemplates his practices
Genre A: Interlinear Construed Text
57.16a What use I make of all these golden hours!
57.16b What (/ʍɒt/) Q.DET use (/juːz/) employment I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM make (/meɪk/) create of (/ɒv/) PREP all (/ɔːl/) every these (/ðiːz/) DEM.PROX.PL golden (/ˈgoːldn̩/) precious hours (/aʊrz/) times
57.17a I use my wit to multiply my store, whilst honest men sleep soundly in their beds.
57.17b I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS wit (/wɪt/) intelligence to (/tuː/) INF multiply (/ˈmʌltɪpləɪ/) increase my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS store (/stɔːr/) wealth whilst (/ʍəɪlst/) while honest (/ˈɒnɪst/) upright men (/mɛn/) people sleep (/sliːp/) slumber soundly (/ˈsaʊndlɪ/) deeply in (/ɪn/) PREP their (/ðɛːr/) 3PL.POSS beds (/bɛdz/) chambers
57.18a They use to call me villain, knave, and worse—yet come they still to borrow at my door.
57.18b They (/ðeɪ/) 3PL.NOM use (/juːz/) are.accustomed to (/tuː/) INF call (/kɔːl/) name me (/miː/) 1SG.OBJ villain (/ˈvɪlən/) scoundrel knave (/neɪv/) rogue and (/ænd/) CONJ worse (/wɜːrs/) more.vile yet (/jɛt/) CONJ.CONTR come (/kʌm/) arrive they (/ðeɪ/) 3PL.NOM still (/stɪl/) yet to (/tuː/) INF borrow (/ˈbɒroː/) take.loan at (/æt/) PREP my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS door (/dɔːr/) threshold
57.19a I use discretion in the choosing of my debtors—some I trust, and some I bind with stricter bonds.
57.19b I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ discretion (/dɪsˈkrɛsɪən/) judgment in (/ɪn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART choosing (/ˈtʃuːzɪŋ/) selection of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS debtors (/ˈdɛtərz/) borrowers some (/sʌm/) certain.ones I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM trust (/trʌst/) credit and (/ænd/) CONJ some (/sʌm/) certain.ones I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM bind (/bəɪnd/) tie with (/wɪð/) PREP stricter (/ˈstrɪktər/) tighter bonds (/bɒndz/) contracts
57.20a The law I use as shield and sword together, for protection and for profit both.
57.20b The (/ðə/) DEF.ART law (/lɔː/) statute I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ as (/æz/) PREP.MANNER shield (/ʃiːld/) defense and (/ænd/) CONJ sword (/swɔːrd/) weapon together (/təˈgɛðər/) jointly for (/fɔːr/) PREP protection (/prəˈtɛksɪən/) safety and (/ænd/) CONJ for (/fɔːr/) PREP profit (/ˈprɒfɪt/) gain both (/boːθ/) alike
57.21a How should I use these wretched supplicants who come with hat in hand and fear upon their brows?
57.21b How (/haʊ/) Q.MANNER should (/ʃʊd/) COND.MOD I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) treat these (/ðiːz/) DEM.PROX.PL wretched (/ˈrɛtʃɪd/) miserable supplicants (/ˈsʌplɪkənts/) petitioners who (/huː/) REL.PRO come (/kʌm/) arrive with (/wɪð/) PREP hat (/hæt/) cap in (/ɪn/) PREP hand (/hænd/) palm and (/ænd/) CONJ fear (/fɪːr/) dread upon (/əˈpɒn/) PREP their (/ðɛːr/) 3PL.POSS brows (/braʊz/) faces
57.22a With kindness? Nay, they’d use that kindness ill, and think me fool for my soft nature.
57.22b With (/wɪð/) PREP kindness (/ˈkəɪndnɪs/) gentleness Nay (/neɪ/) no they’d (/ðeɪd/) 3PL+COND use (/juːz/) exploit that (/ðæt/) DEM.DIST kindness (/ˈkəɪndnɪs/) gentleness ill (/ɪl/) badly and (/ænd/) CONJ think (/θɪŋk/) consider me (/miː/) 1SG.OBJ fool (/fuːl/) simpleton for (/fɔːr/) PREP my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS soft (/sɒft/) tender nature (/ˈneɪtʃər/) disposition
57.23a I use occasion as the sailor uses wind—to fill my sails and drive me toward my port.
57.23b I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) seize occasion (/əˈkeɪzɪən/) opportunity as (/æz/) CONJ.MANNER the (/ðə/) DEF.ART sailor (/ˈseɪlər/) mariner uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) employs wind (/wɪnd/) breeze to (/tuː/) INF fill (/fɪl/) swell my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS sails (/seɪlz/) canvas and (/ænd/) CONJ drive (/drəɪv/) propel me (/miː/) 1SG.OBJ toward (/təˈwɔːrd/) to my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS port (/pɔːrt/) harbor
57.24a My father used to say that coin is coward—it hides itself from them that need it most.
57.24b My (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS father (/ˈfɑːðər/) sire used (/juːzd/) was.accustomed to (/tuː/) INF say (/seɪ/) declare that (/ðæt/) COMP coin (/kɔɪn/) money is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG coward (/ˈkaʊərd/) fearful it (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT hides (/həɪdz/) conceals itself (/ɪtˈsɛlf/) REFL from (/frɒm/) PREP them (/ðɛm/) 3PL.OBJ that (/ðæt/) REL.PRO need (/niːd/) require it (/ɪt/) 3SG.NEUT most (/moːst/) SUPERL
57.25a I use that wisdom still, and keep my gold close-guarded from the desperate poor.
57.25b I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ that (/ðæt/) DEM.DIST wisdom (/ˈwɪzdəm/) knowledge still (/stɪl/) yet and (/ænd/) CONJ keep (/kiːp/) maintain my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS gold (/goːld/) money close-guarded (/kloːs ˈgɑːrdɪd/) well.protected from (/frɒm/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART desperate (/ˈdɛspərət/) despairing poor (/puːr/) indigent
57.26a Yet sometimes, in the watches of the night, I wonder how my Maker uses me in His account.
57.26b Yet (/jɛt/) CONJ.CONTR sometimes (/ˈsʌmtəɪmz/) occasionally in (/ɪn/) PREP the (/ðə/) DEF.ART watches (/ˈwɒtʃɪz/) hours of (/ɒv/) PREP.GEN the (/ðə/) DEF.ART night (/nəɪt/) darkness I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM wonder (/ˈwʌndər/) question how (/haʊ/) Q.MANNER my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS Maker (/ˈmeɪkər/) Creator uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) reckons me (/miː/) 1SG.OBJ in (/ɪn/) PREP His (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS account (/əˈkaʊnt/) ledger
57.27a Do I use mercy? Rarely. Justice? Always—yet justice weighted e’er in my own favour.
57.27b Do (/duː/) AUX.Q I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM use (/juːz/) employ mercy (/ˈmɛrsɪ/) compassion Rarely (/ˈrɛːrlɪ/) seldom Justice (/ˈdʒʌstɪs/) law Always (/ˈɔːlweɪz/) ever yet (/jɛt/) CONJ.CONTR justice (/ˈdʒʌstɪs/) law weighted (/ˈweɪtɪd/) balanced e’er (/ɛːr/) always in (/ɪn/) PREP my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS own (/oːn/) personal favour (/ˈfeɪvər/) advantage
57.28a They say the devil uses honest men to do his work, disguising vice as thrift.
57.28b They (/ðeɪ/) 3PL.NOM say (/seɪ/) declare the (/ðə/) DEF.ART devil (/ˈdɛvl̩/) Satan uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) employs honest (/ˈɒnɪst/) upright men (/mɛn/) people to (/tuː/) INF do (/duː/) perform his (/hɪz/) 3SG.MASC.POSS work (/wɜːrk/) labor disguising (/dɪsˈgəɪzɪŋ/) concealing vice (/vəɪs/) sin as (/æz/) PREP.MANNER thrift (/θrɪft/) prudence
57.29a Am I so used? Is all my careful husbandry but sin in fairer clothing?
57.29b Am (/æm/) COP.1SG I (/əɪ/) 1SG.NOM so (/soː/) thus used (/juːzd/) employed Is (/ɪz/) COP.3SG all (/ɔːl/) every my (/məɪ/) 1SG.POSS careful (/ˈkɛːrfəl/) diligent husbandry (/ˈhʌzbəndrɪ/) stewardship but (/bʌt/) merely sin (/sɪn/) transgression in (/ɪn/) PREP fairer (/ˈfɛːrər/) better clothing (/ˈkloːðɪŋ/) garb
57.30a I’ll use these doubts no more tonight—to bed, to sleep, and let tomorrow bring what questions may.
57.30b I’ll (/əɪl/) 1SG+FUT use (/juːz/) entertain these (/ðiːz/) DEM.PROX.PL doubts (/daʊts/) misgivings no (/noː/) NEG more (/mɔːr/) further tonight (/təˈnəɪt/) this.eve to (/tuː/) PREP bed (/bɛd/) chamber to (/tuː/) PREP sleep (/sliːp/) slumber and (/ænd/) CONJ let (/lɛt/) allow tomorrow (/təˈmɒroː/) morrow bring (/brɪŋ/) carry what (/ʍɒt/) whatever questions (/ˈkwɛstʃənz/) queries may (/meɪ/) MOD.POSS
Genre B: Natural Sentences
57.16 What use I make of all these golden hours! “What employment I make of all these precious hours!”
57.17 I use my wit to multiply my store, whilst honest men sleep soundly in their beds. “I employ my intelligence to increase my wealth while honest men sleep deeply in their beds.”
57.18 They use to call me villain, knave, and worse—yet come they still to borrow at my door. “They habitually call me scoundrel, rogue, and worse—yet they still come to borrow at my doorstep.”
57.19 I use discretion in the choosing of my debtors—some I trust, and some I bind with stricter bonds. “I employ judgment in selecting my borrowers—some I extend credit to, and some I tie with tighter contracts.”
57.20 The law I use as shield and sword together, for protection and for profit both. “I employ the law as both shield and sword, for protection and for profit alike.”
57.21 How should I use these wretched supplicants who come with hat in hand and fear upon their brows? “How should I treat these miserable petitioners who come humbly with dread on their faces?”
57.22 With kindness? Nay, they’d use that kindness ill, and think me fool for my soft nature. “With kindness? No, they would exploit that gentleness and think me a fool for my tender nature.”
57.23 I use occasion as the sailor uses wind—to fill my sails and drive me toward my port. “I seize opportunity as the sailor employs wind—to fill my sails and propel me toward my harbor.”
57.24 My father used to say that coin is coward—it hides itself from them that need it most. “My father was accustomed to saying that money is cowardly—it conceals itself from those who need it most.”
57.25 I use that wisdom still, and keep my gold close-guarded from the desperate poor. “I still employ that wisdom, and keep my money well-protected from the desperate poor.”
57.26 Yet sometimes, in the watches of the night, I wonder how my Maker uses me in His account. “Yet sometimes, in the hours of night, I wonder how my Creator reckons me in His ledger.”
57.27 Do I use mercy? Rarely. Justice? Always—yet justice weighted e’er in my own favour. “Do I employ mercy? Seldom. Justice? Always—yet justice always balanced in my own favor.”
57.28 They say the devil uses honest men to do his work, disguising vice as thrift. “They say Satan employs honest men to do his work, disguising sin as prudence.”
57.29 Am I so used? Is all my careful husbandry but sin in fairer clothing? “Am I so employed? Is all my careful stewardship merely sin in better garments?”
57.30 I’ll use these doubts no more tonight—to bed, to sleep, and let tomorrow bring what questions may. “I shall entertain these doubts no more tonight—to bed, to sleep, and let tomorrow bring whatever questions it may.”
Genre C: Elizabethan Text Only
57.16 What use I make of all these golden hours!
57.17 I use my wit to multiply my store, whilst honest men sleep soundly in their beds.
57.18 They use to call me villain, knave, and worse—yet come they still to borrow at my door.
57.19 I use discretion in the choosing of my debtors—some I trust, and some I bind with stricter bonds.
57.20 The law I use as shield and sword together, for protection and for profit both.
57.21 How should I use these wretched supplicants who come with hat in hand and fear upon their brows?
57.22 With kindness? Nay, they’d use that kindness ill, and think me fool for my soft nature.
57.23 I use occasion as the sailor uses wind—to fill my sails and drive me toward my port.
57.24 My father used to say that coin is coward—it hides itself from them that need it most.
57.25 I use that wisdom still, and keep my gold close-guarded from the desperate poor.
57.26 Yet sometimes, in the watches of the night, I wonder how my Maker uses me in His account.
57.27 Do I use mercy? Rarely. Justice? Always—yet justice weighted e’er in my own favour.
57.28 They say the devil uses honest men to do his work, disguising vice as thrift.
57.29 Am I so used? Is all my careful husbandry but sin in fairer clothing?
57.30 I’ll use these doubts no more tonight—to bed, to sleep, and let tomorrow bring what questions may.
Genre D: Grammar Notes
This soliloquy demonstrates the full semantic range of “use” in Early Modern English:
Instances of “use” meaning “employ”: -
“I use my wit” (57.17) -
“I use discretion” (57.19) -
“The law I use” (57.20) -
“I use occasion” (57.23) -
“I use that wisdom” (57.25) -
“the sailor uses wind” (57.23)
Instances of “use” meaning “treat”: -
“How should I use these supplicants” (57.21)
Instances of “use” meaning “exploit”: -
“they’d use that kindness ill” (57.22)
Instances of “use” meaning “be accustomed to”: -
“They use to call me” (57.18) -
“My father used to say” (57.24)
Instances of “use” meaning “employ (a person)”: -
“the devil uses honest men” (57.28) -
“Am I so used?” (57.29) -
“how my Maker uses me” (57.26)
Instances of “use” meaning “entertain/indulge”: -
“I’ll use these doubts no more” (57.30)
The noun “use”: -
“What use I make” (57.16)
Period Pronunciation in the Soliloquy: -
discretion /dɪsˈkrɛsɪən/ — not /dɪˈskreʃən/ -
occasion /əˈkeɪzɪən/ — not /əˈkeɪʒən/ -
protection /prəˈtɛksɪən/ — not /prəˈtekʃən/ -
questions /ˈkwɛstʃənz/ — closer to modern but note the full /t/ before /ʃ/
Rhetorical Structure: The soliloquy employs the Shakespearean technique of self-interrogation, moving from confident assertion through growing doubt to temporary resolution. The speaker “uses” multiple senses of “use” as he examines his own practices, creating a semantic web that mirrors his moral confusion.
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Key Period Pronunciation Features:
The -tion/-sion Suffix In Early Modern English, these suffixes preserved a fuller pronunciation: /sɪən/ rather than modern /ʃən/. -
discretion: /dɪsˈkrɛsɪən/ -
occasion: /əˈkeɪzɪən/ -
protection: /prəˈtɛksɪən/ -
salvation: /sælˈveɪsɪən/
Rhotic /r/ All written ⟨r⟩ was pronounced, including after vowels: -
hour: /aʊr/ -
sword: /swɔːrd/ -
mercy: /ˈmɛrsɪ/ -
service: /ˈsɛrvɪs/
The PRICE Diphthong The vowel in “my,” “I,” “time” began with a schwa: -
I: /əɪ/ -
my: /məɪ/ -
time: /təɪm/ -
night: /nəɪt/ -
strike: /strəɪk/
Wh- Distinguished from W- The ⟨wh⟩ spelling indicated /ʍ/, distinct from /w/: -
what: /ʍɒt/ -
when: /ʍɛn/ -
whilst: /ʍəɪlst/ -
wherein: /ʍɛrˈɪn/
The FACE Vowel More monophthongal than modern pronunciation: -
face: /feɪs/ → closer to /fɛːs/ -
name: /neɪm/ → closer to /nɛːm/
Elision Vowels were frequently elided in rapid speech, as meter often indicates: -
e’er: /ɛːr/ (ever) -
‘gainst: /geɪnst/ (against) -
o’er: /ɔːr/ (over) -
‘tis: /tɪz/ (it is)
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This lesson forms part of the Latinum Institute Elizabethan English Course, designed for autodidact learners who wish to read Shakespeare, Marlowe, and their contemporaries with fluency and comprehension. The course follows a frequency-based vocabulary curriculum of 1,000 essential words, ensuring systematic coverage of the lexicon most essential for understanding Early Modern texts.
The interlinear construed text method employed throughout this course accelerates acquisition by presenting target-language sentences with word-by-word glossing, allowing learners to internalize grammatical patterns and vocabulary simultaneously. This approach, refined through decades of pedagogical practice at the Latinum Institute, proves particularly effective for historical language varieties where grammatical forms differ from modern usage.
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✓ Lesson 57 Elizabethan English complete
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