Welcome to the sixth lesson of the Elizabethan English course. This lesson explores the humble yet mighty preposition to, a word that stands at the crossroads of motion and meaning. In Shakespeare’s English, to governs direction (”I go to London”), marks the infinitive (”to be or not to be”), signals purpose (”I come to speak”), and indicates recipients (”give it to me”). Though identical in form to Modern English, Elizabethan to operates within a richer grammatical ecosystem of second-person pronouns, inflected verb endings, and word orders that reward close attention.
Course Index:
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FAQ: What does “to” mean in Elizabethan English?
The preposition to in Elizabethan English performs the same essential functions as in Modern English but appears alongside archaic pronouns (thee, thou), verb forms (art, hast, doth), and constructions now obsolete. Understanding to requires recognizing its partnerships with infinitives, its role in indirect objects, and its appearance in set phrases characteristic of Early Modern rhetoric.
Key Takeaways: -
To as direction marker: physical or metaphorical movement toward a destination -
To as infinitive marker: preceding the base form of verbs -
To as purpose indicator: expressing intention or aim -
To as recipient marker: introducing indirect objects -
To in idiomatic phrases: “to wit,” “to boot,” “to the quick”
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Instructions: Each example presents the Elizabethan text with word-by-word glossing. Study the grammatical function of each element while noting how to operates in different constructions.
1.1a I go to London on the morrow.
1.1b I (PRON-1sg.subj) I go (V-pres.1sg) go to (PREP-direction) to London (N-proper) London on (PREP-time) on the (DEF.ART) the morrow (N) morrow/tomorrow
1.2a To be or not to be, that is the question.
1.2b To (PART-inf) to be (V-inf) be or (CONJ-alt) or not (ADV-neg) not to (PART-inf) to be (V-inf) be that (DEM.PRON) that is (V-pres.3sg) is the (DEF.ART) the question (N) question
1.3a Give the letter to thy sister.
1.3b Give (V-imp) give the (DEF.ART) the letter (N) letter to (PREP-recipient) to thy (POSS.PRON-2sg.fam) thy/your sister (N) sister
1.4a We ride to battle at dawn.
1.4b We (PRON-1pl.subj) we ride (V-pres.1pl) ride to (PREP-direction) to battle (N) battle at (PREP-time) at dawn (N) dawn
1.5a I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
1.5b I (PRON-1sg.subj) I come (V-pres.1sg) come to (PART-inf/purpose) to bury (V-inf) bury Caesar (N-proper) Caesar not (ADV-neg) not to (PART-inf/purpose) to praise (V-inf) praise him (PRON-3sg.masc.obj) him
1.6a Thou art welcome to my humble dwelling.
1.6b Thou (PRON-2sg.fam.subj) thou/you art (V-pres.2sg.fam) art/are welcome (ADJ-pred) welcome to (PREP-direction) to my (POSS.PRON-1sg) my humble (ADJ) humble dwelling (N) dwelling/home
1.7a The messenger hath ridden hard to bring thee these tidings.
1.7b The (DEF.ART) the messenger (N) messenger hath (AUX-pres.3sg) hath/has ridden (V-pp) ridden hard (ADV-manner) hard to (PART-inf/purpose) to bring (V-inf) bring thee (PRON-2sg.fam.obj) thee/you these (DEM.DET) these tidings (N-pl) tidings/news
1.8a Look to the east and mark the rising sun.
1.8b Look (V-imp) look to (PREP-direction) to/toward the (DEF.ART) the east (N) east and (CONJ-coord) and mark (V-imp) mark/observe the (DEF.ART) the rising (ADJ-pres.part) rising sun (N) sun
1.9a What is it to thee if I choose this path?
1.9b What (INTERROG.PRON) what is (V-pres.3sg) is it (PRON-3sg.neut.subj) it to (PREP-reference) to thee (PRON-2sg.fam.obj) thee/you if (CONJ-cond) if I (PRON-1sg.subj) I choose (V-pres.1sg) choose this (DEM.DET) this path (N) path
1.10a To speak ill of the dead dishonoureth the speaker.
1.10b To (PART-inf) to speak (V-inf) speak ill (ADV) ill/badly of (PREP) of the (DEF.ART) the dead (N-subst) dead dishonoureth (V-pres.3sg) dishonoureth/dishonours the (DEF.ART) the speaker (N) speaker
1.11a The King commandeth thee to appear before him forthwith.
1.11b The (DEF.ART) the King (N) King commandeth (V-pres.3sg) commandeth/commands thee (PRON-2sg.fam.obj) thee/you to (PART-inf) to appear (V-inf) appear before (PREP) before him (PRON-3sg.masc.obj) him forthwith (ADV-time) forthwith/immediately
1.12a I am come to set a son against his father.
1.12b I (PRON-1sg.subj) I am (AUX-pres.1sg) am come (V-pp) come to (PART-inf/purpose) to set (V-inf) set a (INDEF.ART) a son (N) son against (PREP) against his (POSS.PRON-3sg.masc) his father (N) father
1.13a From this day forward, to thee alone shall I pledge my troth.
1.13b From (PREP) from this (DEM.DET) this day (N) day forward (ADV-direction) forward to (PREP-recipient) to thee (PRON-2sg.fam.obj) thee/you alone (ADV) alone shall (AUX-fut.1sg) shall I (PRON-1sg.subj) I pledge (V-inf) pledge my (POSS.PRON-1sg) my troth (N) troth/faith
1.14a ‘Tis better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
1.14b ‘Tis (CONTR-it.is) ‘tis/it.is better (ADJ-comp) better to (PART-inf) to have (AUX-inf) have loved (V-pp) loved and (CONJ-coord) and lost (V-pp) lost than (CONJ-comp) than never (ADV-neg.freq) never to (PART-inf) to have (AUX-inf) have loved (V-pp) loved at (PREP) at all (DET) all
1.15a The lady doth protest too much to my thinking.
1.15b The (DEF.ART) the lady (N) lady doth (AUX-pres.3sg) doth/does protest (V-inf) protest too (ADV-degree) too much (ADV-quantity) much to (PREP-reference) to my (POSS.PRON-1sg) my thinking (N) thinking/opinion
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Instructions: Read each sentence with its Modern English translation. Notice how the Elizabethan constructions differ in rhythm and register while conveying equivalent meaning.
1.1 I go to London on the morrow. “I am going to London tomorrow.”
1.2 To be or not to be, that is the question. “To exist or not to exist—that is the question.”
1.3 Give the letter to thy sister. “Give the letter to your sister.”
1.4 We ride to battle at dawn. “We ride to battle at dawn.”
1.5 I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. “I have come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.”
1.6 Thou art welcome to my humble dwelling. “You are welcome to my humble home.”
1.7 The messenger hath ridden hard to bring thee these tidings. “The messenger has ridden hard to bring you this news.”
1.8 Look to the east and mark the rising sun. “Look toward the east and observe the rising sun.”
1.9 What is it to thee if I choose this path? “What does it matter to you if I choose this path?”
1.10 To speak ill of the dead dishonoureth the speaker. “Speaking ill of the dead dishonours the speaker.”
1.11 The King commandeth thee to appear before him forthwith. “The King commands you to appear before him immediately.”
1.12 I am come to set a son against his father. “I have come to set a son against his father.”
1.13 From this day forward, to thee alone shall I pledge my troth. “From this day forward, to you alone shall I pledge my faithfulness.”
1.14 ‘Tis better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all. “It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.”
1.15 The lady doth protest too much to my thinking. “The lady protests too much, in my opinion.”
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Instructions: Read through the Elizabethan sentences without translation support. Focus on recognizing to in its various functions and parsing the archaic forms from context.
1.1 I go to London on the morrow.
1.2 To be or not to be, that is the question.
1.3 Give the letter to thy sister.
1.4 We ride to battle at dawn.
1.5 I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
1.6 Thou art welcome to my humble dwelling.
1.7 The messenger hath ridden hard to bring thee these tidings.
1.8 Look to the east and mark the rising sun.
1.9 What is it to thee if I choose this path?
1.10 To speak ill of the dead dishonoureth the speaker.
1.11 The King commandeth thee to appear before him forthwith.
1.12 I am come to set a son against his father.
1.13 From this day forward, to thee alone shall I pledge my troth.
1.14 ‘Tis better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
1.15 The lady doth protest too much to my thinking.
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The Functions of “To” in Elizabethan English
The preposition to operates identically in Elizabethan and Modern English at its core, yet the surrounding grammar illuminates distinctions modern readers must learn.
1. Direction and Destination
When to indicates physical or metaphorical movement toward a place or state, it governs a noun or noun phrase: -
“I go to London” (physical destination) -
“Look to the east” (direction of gaze) -
“Thou art welcome to my dwelling” (invitation toward a place)
This directional sense extends metaphorically: “from rags to riches,” “to my thinking” (toward my way of seeing).
2. Infinitive Marker
The most philosophically charged use of to marks the infinitive form of verbs: -
“To be or not to be“ -
“I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him” -
“To speak ill of the dead dishonoureth the speaker”
When an infinitive phrase functions as the subject (”To speak ill...dishonoureth”), the construction takes third-person singular verb agreement. This infinitival subject construction appears frequently in Elizabethan moral sententiae.
3. Purpose and Intent
Closely related to the infinitive marker, to expresses purpose when following verbs of motion or effort: -
“The messenger hath ridden hard to bring thee these tidings” (purpose of riding) -
“I am come to set a son against his father” (purpose of coming) -
“The King commandeth thee to appear“ (purpose of command)
The construction “I am come to...” uses the auxiliary “am” with the past participle “come” to form a perfect aspect—a construction now obsolete but standard in Elizabethan English for verbs of motion.
4. Recipient and Reference
When indicating the indirect object or the person affected by an action: -
“Give the letter to thy sister” (recipient of giving) -
“What is it to thee?” (reference to affected person) -
“To thee alone shall I pledge” (recipient of pledge)
Note the word order in “to thee alone shall I”—the prepositional phrase moves to initial position for emphasis, triggering subject-verb inversion (”shall I” rather than “I shall”).
5. Idiomatic Expressions
Elizabethan English preserves phrases with to now archaic or formal: -
“to my thinking” (in my opinion) -
“to wit“ (namely, that is to say) -
“to boot“ (in addition) -
“to the quick“ (to the living flesh, hence deeply)
Archaic Forms Appearing with “To”
Because to so frequently introduces indirect objects, students encounter the second-person familiar pronouns in the objective case: -
thee (singular familiar object): “to thee,” “bring thee” -
thy/thine (singular familiar possessive): “thy sister,” “thine honour”
The verb forms hath (has), doth (does), -eth (third-person singular), and art (second-person singular “are”) appear constantly in constructions with to: -
“The messenger hath ridden to bring...” -
“The lady doth protest too much to my thinking” -
“To speak ill dishonoureth the speaker” -
“Thou art welcome to...”
Constructions No Longer Current -
“I am come to...” (Perfect aspect with ‘be’ for motion verbs; Modern: “I have come to...”) -
“What is it to thee?” (Modern: “What does it matter to you?”) -
“’Tis better to...” (Contraction of “it is”; survives only in poetry)
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The Infinitive in Renaissance Philosophy
Shakespeare’s “To be or not to be” stands as perhaps the most famous infinitive construction in English literature. The infinitive form—verb stripped to its essence, ungoverned by tense or person—suited Renaissance inquiry into abstract questions of existence, morality, and choice. When Hamlet asks whether “to be” surpasses “not to be,” he engages the infinitive’s capacity to name actions and states in their pure form, divorced from specific actors or times.
The Grammar of Social Hierarchy
The pronoun system distinguished thou/thee/thy (singular familiar) from you/your (plural or singular formal). When a speaker addresses “thee” with to—”Give to thee,” “What is it to thee?”—the grammar encodes intimacy, condescension, or deliberate insult depending on context. Using “thee” to a superior constituted offense; using it to an intimate expressed closeness; using it to a stranger signaled contempt.
The Stage Direction in Language
Elizabethan playgoers had no printed programs, no projected supertitles. Language itself performed the work of stage direction. When a character says “Look to the east and mark the rising sun,” the audience knows where to direct imagination even as the actor gestures toward the pit. The preposition to guided attention across the bare stage.
The Rhetoric of Purpose
The construction “I come to + infinitive” pervades public speech in the period. Marc Antony’s “I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him” demonstrates the rhetorical figure of prolepsis—announcing purpose in order to subvert it. The doubled to structures create parallel infinitive phrases whose opposition (”bury/praise,” “not/—”) generates the ironic tension of the speech.
From Manuscript to Print
The spelling of to remained stable from Elizabethan times, but printers sometimes used too and two interchangeably with to due to ongoing orthographic standardization. Modern edited texts normalize these variants, but original quartos and folios sometimes read “too the King” where modern editions print “to the King.”
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From Hamlet, Act III, Scene 1 (William Shakespeare, c. 1600)
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
To (PART-inf) to be (V-inf) be or (CONJ-alt) or not (ADV-neg) not to (PART-inf) to be (V-inf) be that (DEM.PRON) that is (V-pres.3sg) is the (DEF.ART) the question (N) question whether (CONJ-interrog) whether ‘tis (CONTR-it.is) ‘tis/it.is nobler (ADJ-comp) nobler in (PREP) in the (DEF.ART) the mind (N) mind to (PART-inf) to suffer (V-inf) suffer the (DEF.ART) the slings (N-pl) slings and (CONJ-coord) and arrows (N-pl) arrows of (PREP) of outrageous (ADJ) outrageous fortune (N) fortune or (CONJ-alt) or to (PART-inf) to take (V-inf) take arms (N-pl) arms against (PREP) against a (INDEF.ART) a sea (N) sea of (PREP) of troubles (N-pl) troubles and (CONJ-coord) and by (PREP) by opposing (V-pres.part) opposing end (V-inf) end them (PRON-3pl.obj) them
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
To be, or not to be, that is the question: Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them.
Translation: “To exist or not to exist—that is the question: whether it is nobler mentally to endure the attacks of cruel fate, or to fight back against overwhelming troubles and by resisting them, end them.”
F-C: Original Text Only
To be, or not to be, that is the question: Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them.
F-D: Vocabulary and Grammar Notes -
To be: The infinitive stripped bare, naming existence itself without tense, mood, or person -
‘Tis: Contracted form of “it is,” preserving a syllable in the metrical line -
Nobler: Comparative adjective, raising the question as one of relative virtue -
To suffer... to take: Parallel infinitives establishing the alternatives Hamlet weighs -
Slings and arrows: Metonymy for assaults; the first metaphor of hostile fortune -
Outrageous: Violent, excessive (stronger than modern sense of “shocking”) -
Sea of troubles: Mixed metaphor deliberate—troubles flood and drown -
By opposing end them: Infinitive “end” completes the verbal phrase begun by “take arms”
F-E: Literary Commentary
This soliloquy showcases to in its infinitive function at maximum philosophical weight. Hamlet’s opening line contains four instances of the infinitive marker, two positive (”to be,” “to be”) and two negative in effect (”not to be”). The structural repetition—”to suffer” or “to take”—forces the alternatives into parallel grammatical frames, underscoring that Hamlet perceives his choice as binary even as his vacillation extends across thirty lines.
The line “Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer“ places the infinitive phrase after the adjective “nobler,” creating a sense of deliberation before the action is even named. The competing infinitive “to take arms” introduces martial vocabulary against Fortune’s assault, and the final infinitive “end them” arrives as consequence rather than choice, governed by the preposition “by” + gerund “opposing.”
Shakespeare’s grammar here does more than convey meaning—it performs the mind’s back-and-forth motion, clause balanced against clause, to against to, in perfect indecision.
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Context: Two courtiers debate whether to support or oppose a dangerous political alliance. The dialogue demonstrates to in its various functions through the natural flow of Elizabethan dramatic speech.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
1.16a NORTHWOOD: What say’st thou to the Duke’s proposal?
1.16b What (INTERROG.PRON) what say’st (V-pres.2sg.fam) say’st/say thou (PRON-2sg.fam.subj) thou/you to (PREP-reference) to/concerning the (DEF.ART) the Duke’s (N-poss) Duke’s proposal (N) proposal
1.17a CROMWELL: To speak plainly, it pleaseth me not.
1.17b To (PART-inf) to speak (V-inf) speak plainly (ADV-manner) plainly it (PRON-3sg.neut.subj) it pleaseth (V-pres.3sg) pleaseth/pleases me (PRON-1sg.obj) me not (ADV-neg) not
1.18a NORTHWOOD: Yet thou must answer to the King ere long.
1.18b Yet (CONJ-adversative) yet thou (PRON-2sg.fam.subj) thou/you must (AUX-mod) must answer (V-inf) answer to (PREP-recipient) to the (DEF.ART) the King (N) King ere (PREP-temporal) ere/before long (ADV-time) long
1.19a CROMWELL: I mean to speak my conscience when that hour cometh.
1.19b I (PRON-1sg.subj) I mean (V-pres.1sg) mean/intend to (PART-inf) to speak (V-inf) speak my (POSS.PRON-1sg) my conscience (N) conscience when (CONJ-temp) when that (DEM.DET) that hour (N) hour cometh (V-pres.3sg) cometh/comes
1.20a NORTHWOOD: To cross the Duke is to invite destruction.
1.20b To (PART-inf) to cross (V-inf) cross/oppose the (DEF.ART) the Duke (N) Duke is (V-pres.3sg) is to (PART-inf) to invite (V-inf) invite destruction (N) destruction
1.21a CROMWELL: And to embrace his cause is to surrender honour.
1.21b And (CONJ-coord) and to (PART-inf) to embrace (V-inf) embrace his (POSS.PRON-3sg.masc) his cause (N) cause is (V-pres.3sg) is to (PART-inf) to surrender (V-inf) surrender honour (N) honour
1.22a NORTHWOOD: Come, let us walk to the garden and consider further.
1.22b Come (V-imp) come let (V-imp) let us (PRON-1pl.obj) us walk (V-inf) walk to (PREP-direction) to the (DEF.ART) the garden (N) garden and (CONJ-coord) and consider (V-inf) consider further (ADV) further
1.23a CROMWELL: Gladly. I have much to say that cannot be spoken here.
1.23b Gladly (ADV-manner) gladly I (PRON-1sg.subj) I have (V-pres.1sg) have much (PRON-indef) much to (PART-inf) to say (V-inf) say that (REL.PRON) that cannot (AUX-mod.neg) cannot be (AUX-inf.pass) be spoken (V-pp) spoken here (ADV-place) here
1.24a NORTHWOOD: Hast thou sent word to thy kinsmen in the north?
1.24b Hast (AUX-pres.2sg.fam) hast/have thou (PRON-2sg.fam.subj) thou/you sent (V-pp) sent word (N) word to (PREP-recipient) to thy (POSS.PRON-2sg.fam) thy/your kinsmen (N-pl) kinsmen in (PREP-place) in the (DEF.ART) the north (N) north
1.25a CROMWELL: I mean to dispatch a messenger to them this very night.
1.25b I (PRON-1sg.subj) I mean (V-pres.1sg) mean/intend to (PART-inf) to dispatch (V-inf) dispatch a (INDEF.ART) a messenger (N) messenger to (PREP-recipient) to them (PRON-3pl.obj) them this (DEM.DET) this very (ADV-emph) very night (N) night
1.26a NORTHWOOD: Look to thine own safety first, good Cromwell.
1.26b Look (V-imp) look to (PREP-reference) to/after thine (POSS.PRON-2sg.fam) thine/your own (ADJ) own safety (N) safety first (ADV-order) first good (ADJ-voc) good Cromwell (N-proper.voc) Cromwell
1.27a CROMWELL: Fear not—I am not so easily brought to heel.
1.27b Fear (V-imp) fear not (ADV-neg) not I (PRON-1sg.subj) I am (V-pres.1sg) am not (ADV-neg) not so (ADV-degree) so easily (ADV-manner) easily brought (V-pp) brought to (PREP-direction.fig) to heel (N) heel
1.28a NORTHWOOD: The hour groweth late. Let us return to the hall.
1.28b The (DEF.ART) the hour (N) hour groweth (V-pres.3sg) groweth/grows late (ADJ-pred) late let (V-imp) let us (PRON-1pl.obj) us return (V-inf) return to (PREP-direction) to the (DEF.ART) the hall (N) hall
1.29a CROMWELL: To the hall, then—and to whatever fortune awaiteth us there.
1.29b To (PREP-direction) to the (DEF.ART) the hall (N) hall then (ADV-sequence) then and (CONJ-coord) and to (PREP-direction.fig) to whatever (REL.DET) whatever fortune (N) fortune awaiteth (V-pres.3sg) awaiteth/awaits us (PRON-1pl.obj) us there (ADV-place) there
1.30a NORTHWOOD: May Heaven guide us to wisdom in this perilous hour.
1.30b May (AUX-subj) may Heaven (N-proper) Heaven guide (V-subj) guide us (PRON-1pl.obj) us to (PREP-direction.fig) to wisdom (N) wisdom in (PREP-time) in this (DEM.DET) this perilous (ADJ) perilous hour (N) hour
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Part B: Natural Sentences
1.16 NORTHWOOD: What say’st thou to the Duke’s proposal? “What do you say about the Duke’s proposal?”
1.17 CROMWELL: To speak plainly, it pleaseth me not. “To speak plainly, it does not please me.”
1.18 NORTHWOOD: Yet thou must answer to the King ere long. “Yet you must answer to the King before long.”
1.19 CROMWELL: I mean to speak my conscience when that hour cometh. “I intend to speak my conscience when that hour comes.”
1.20 NORTHWOOD: To cross the Duke is to invite destruction. “To oppose the Duke is to invite destruction.”
1.21 CROMWELL: And to embrace his cause is to surrender honour. “And to embrace his cause is to surrender honour.”
1.22 NORTHWOOD: Come, let us walk to the garden and consider further. “Come, let us walk to the garden and consider further.”
1.23 CROMWELL: Gladly. I have much to say that cannot be spoken here. “Gladly. I have much to say that cannot be spoken here.”
1.24 NORTHWOOD: Hast thou sent word to thy kinsmen in the north? “Have you sent word to your relatives in the north?”
1.25 CROMWELL: I mean to dispatch a messenger to them this very night. “I intend to dispatch a messenger to them this very night.”
1.26 NORTHWOOD: Look to thine own safety first, good Cromwell. “Look after your own safety first, good Cromwell.”
1.27 CROMWELL: Fear not—I am not so easily brought to heel. “Fear not—I am not so easily brought to submission.”
1.28 NORTHWOOD: The hour groweth late. Let us return to the hall. “The hour grows late. Let us return to the hall.”
1.29 CROMWELL: To the hall, then—and to whatever fortune awaiteth us there. “To the hall, then—and to whatever fortune awaits us there.”
1.30 NORTHWOOD: May Heaven guide us to wisdom in this perilous hour. “May Heaven guide us to wisdom in this perilous hour.”
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Part C: Elizabethan Text Only
1.16 NORTHWOOD: What say’st thou to the Duke’s proposal?
1.17 CROMWELL: To speak plainly, it pleaseth me not.
1.18 NORTHWOOD: Yet thou must answer to the King ere long.
1.19 CROMWELL: I mean to speak my conscience when that hour cometh.
1.20 NORTHWOOD: To cross the Duke is to invite destruction.
1.21 CROMWELL: And to embrace his cause is to surrender honour.
1.22 NORTHWOOD: Come, let us walk to the garden and consider further.
1.23 CROMWELL: Gladly. I have much to say that cannot be spoken here.
1.24 NORTHWOOD: Hast thou sent word to thy kinsmen in the north?
1.25 CROMWELL: I mean to dispatch a messenger to them this very night.
1.26 NORTHWOOD: Look to thine own safety first, good Cromwell.
1.27 CROMWELL: Fear not—I am not so easily brought to heel.
1.28 NORTHWOOD: The hour groweth late. Let us return to the hall.
1.29 CROMWELL: To the hall, then—and to whatever fortune awaiteth us there.
1.30 NORTHWOOD: May Heaven guide us to wisdom in this perilous hour.
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Part D: Grammar Notes for the Dialogue
This dialogue demonstrates the preposition to in:
Direction (physical): “walk to the garden,” “return to the hall,” “to the hall, then”
Direction (metaphorical/figurative): “brought to heel” (subjection), “guide us to wisdom”
Recipient: “answer to the King,” “sent word to thy kinsmen,” “dispatch a messenger to them”
Reference/Concerning: “What say’st thou to the proposal?”, “Look to thine own safety”
Infinitive marker: “to speak plainly,” “I mean to speak,” “to cross the Duke,” “to invite destruction,” “to embrace his cause,” “to surrender honour,” “much to say,” “to dispatch”
Double infinitive equations: “To cross the Duke is to invite destruction” — Both subject and predicate are infinitive phrases, linked by the copula, expressing an identity of action and consequence.
Look to (idiomatic): When followed by a pronoun or noun denoting a person, “look to” means “attend to,” “watch over,” or “take care of”—distinct from “look at” (simple viewing).
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This lesson forms part of the Elizabethan English course developed by the Latinum Institute, following a frequency-based vocabulary curriculum. Each lesson introduces one of the 1000 most common English words as used in Early Modern English texts, particularly the works of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
The construed interlinear format presents texts with word-by-word grammatical analysis, enabling self-directed learners to parse unfamiliar constructions without external reference materials. This methodology derives from classical language pedagogy, adapted for historical English variants.
Why study Elizabethan English? The language of Shakespeare, the King James Bible, and the founding documents of English literature remains essential for anyone engaging seriously with the Western canon. Understanding the grammatical architecture of Early Modern English—its pronoun systems, verb inflections, and syntactic possibilities—opens doors closed to readers dependent on modernized editions.
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Coming Next: Lesson 007 explores the preposition in, examining location, state, and the metaphorical uses that distinguish Elizabethan idiom from modern expression.
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End of Lesson 006
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