over → over, o’er – the word of place above and across, of passing beyond, and of rule: over hill, over dale; my cup runneth over
What does "over" mean in Elizabethan English, in "over hill, over dale", "my cup runneth over", "give o’er the play" or "dominion over the fish of the sea"?
The word is over, and in verse it is very often written o’er, a single syllable. It is the same word as Modern English "over", and most of its meanings are still ours. Its use in the period is wider, though, and the reader of Shakespeare and the King James Bible meets it in places where we would now choose another word.
Over is first a preposition of place. It says that one thing is above another: the star… stood over where the young child was (Matthew 2:9). It says that something moves across a space from one side to the other: Walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill (Hamlet). And it says that something covers a surface or a whole region: Over hill, over dale (A Midsummer Night’s Dream).
From "above" comes the sense of rule and authority: let them have dominion over the fish of the sea (Genesis 1:26). And from "above, bending over" comes the sense of feeling directed at a thing: joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth (Luke 15:7).
Over is also an adverb, standing without a noun after it: my cup runneth over (Psalm 23:5), that is, the cup is so full that it spills across its brim. With certain verbs the adverb makes a fixed phrase: give o’er "cease, leave off", as Polonius cries Give o’er the play (Hamlet); read over "read through"; go o’er "go across, go on to the far side" (Macbeth).
Two forms belong to the period and need special notice. The first is o’er, the contracted spelling, which tells the reader that the word is one syllable in the metre. The second is the compound over against, "opposite, facing", which is common in the King James Bible and is not a hostile phrase at all: the candlestick over against the table (Exodus 26:35) means the candlestick stands facing the table.
The word is also a prefix, over- or o’er-, in compounds such as overdone, o’erstep and o’erperch. Hamlet uses both spellings in a single sentence: o’erstep not the modesty of nature: for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing.
Etymology: over comes from Old English ofer, from Proto-Germanic \uber, from a Proto-Indo-European root meaning "above, over". German über, Dutch over and Old Norse yfir are the same word, and Latin super and Greek hyper are its distant cousins. Students of the Old English course have already met ofer in Beowulf*: ofer hronrāde, "over the whale-road".
FAQ: What does "over" mean in Elizabethan English?
Q: Is "o’er" a different word from "over"? A: No. O’er is the same word, spelled to show that it is said as one syllable, /oːr/. Poets used whichever form the line needed. In prose over is usual.
Q: What does "my cup runneth over" mean? A: "My cup overflows." Over is an adverb here, and runneth is the old third person singular of run.
Q: What does "over against" mean? A: "Opposite, facing." The candlestick over against the table is the candlestick set opposite the table.
Q: What does "give o’er" mean? A: "Stop, leave off". Give o’er the play means "Stop the play".
Key Takeaways
✦ Over is a preposition of place: above (stood over where the young child was), across (walks o’er the dew), and all about a region (over hill, over dale)
✦ O’er is the one-syllable spelling of the same word, chosen for the metre
✦ Over marks rule (dominion over the fish of the sea) and the object of a feeling (joy… over one sinner)
✦ As an adverb it makes fixed phrases: run over "overflow", give o’er "cease", go o’er "go across"
✦ Over against means "opposite, facing", and over-/o’er- is a living prefix: o’erstep, overdone, o’erperch
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This course follows the reconstructed Original Pronunciation of David Crystal and his collaborators. Two features matter most for this lesson.
over /ˈoːvər/ — two syllables, stress on the first. In Original Pronunciation the vowel of "go", "home", "over" is a long, pure /oː/, with the tongue held still, rather than the gliding vowel of modern Standard English. The final r is sounded: /ər/. Earlier lessons in this course wrote this vowel as /oʊ/; it is written /oː/ here and through this lesson, because the reconstruction gives a monophthong.
o’er /oːr/ — one syllable: the same long /oː/ followed by a sounded r. It does not rhyme with modern non-rhotic "or" /ɔː/, and it is not "ore" said with a modern glide. The apostrophe marks the v that is lost.
over against /ˈoːvər əˈgɛnst/ — "against" has the short vowel of "get", as it still does in much British speech.
thorough /ˈθʊrə/ — in the Fairy’s speech (Section F) this is the old two-syllable form of "through". It gives the line its second beat: THO-rough BUSH, THO-rough BRI-er.
I, my, thy, fire — the vowel is /əɪ/, a diphthong that begins in the middle of the mouth: I /əɪ/, my /məɪ/, fire /fəɪr/. This is the sound behind the famous pun in which "lines" and "loins" were nearly the same word.
runneth /ˈrʊnəθ/, repenteth /rɪˈpɛntəθ/ — the -eth ending is a light unstressed syllable, /əθ/.
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80.1a Over over hill hill over over dale valley
80.1b Over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP hill /hɪl/ hill-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP dale /deɪl/ valley-SG
80.2a My my cup cup runneth runs over over
80.2b My /məɪ/ my-POSS.1SG cup /kʊp/ cup-SG runneth /ˈrʊnəθ/ runs-3SG.PRES over /ˈoːvər/ over-ADV
80.3a Give give o’er over the the play play
80.3b Give /gɪv/ give-IMP o’er /oːr/ over-ADV(cease) the /ðə/ the play /pleɪ/ play-SG
80.4a He he leapt leapt o’er over the the wall wall
80.4b He /hiː/ he-NOM.3SG leapt /lɛpt/ leapt-PAST o’er /oːr/ over-PREP the /ðə/ the wall /wɔːl/ wall-SG
80.5a Read read the the letter letter over over
80.5b Read /riːd/ read-IMP the /ðə/ the letter /ˈlɛtər/ letter-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-ADV(through)
80.6a The the king king hath has power power over over all all his his realm realm
80.6b The /ðə/ the king /kɪŋ/ king-SG hath /hæθ/ has-3SG.PRES power /ˈpaʊər/ power-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(rule) all /ɔːl/ all his /hɪz/ his-POSS.3SG.M realm /rɛlm/ realm-SG
80.7a She she wept wept over over the the letter letter all all the the night night
80.7b She /ʃiː/ she-NOM.3SG wept /wɛpt/ wept-PAST over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(cause) the /ðə/ the letter /ˈlɛtər/ letter-SG all /ɔːl/ all the /ðə/ the night /nəɪt/ night-SG
80.8a We we shall shall ride ride over over the the bridge bridge ere before noon noon
80.8b We /wiː/ we-NOM.1PL shall /ʃæl/ shall-FUT ride /rəɪd/ ride-INF over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the bridge /brɪdʒ/ bridge-SG ere /ɛːr/ before-PREP noon /nuːn/ noon-SG
80.9a Hang hang thy your cloak cloak o’er over yonder that chair chair
80.9b Hang /hæŋ/ hang-IMP thy /ðəɪ/ your-POSS.2SG.FAM cloak /kloːk/ cloak-SG o’er /oːr/ over-PREP yonder /ˈjɒndər/ that-yonder-DEM chair /tʃɛər/ chair-SG
80.10a The the candlestick candlestick over over against against the the table table
80.10b The /ðə/ the candlestick /ˈkændlstɪk/ candlestick-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP against /əˈgɛnst/ against-PREP(over-against = opposite) the /ðə/ the table /ˈteɪbl/ table-SG
80.11a With with love’s love's light light wings wings did did I I o’erperch over-perch these these walls walls
80.11b With /wɪθ/ with-PREP love’s /lʊvz/ love-GEN light /ləɪt/ light-ADJ wings /wɪŋz/ wing-PL did /dɪd/ did-PAST.AUX I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG o’erperch /oːrˈpɜːrtʃ/ over-perch-INF(fly over) these /ðiːz/ this-PL walls /wɔːlz/ wall-PL
80.12a But but look look the the morn morning in in russet russet mantle mantle clad clothed walks walks o’er over the the dew dew of of yon that high high eastward eastward hill hill
80.12b But /bʊt/ but-CONJ look /lʊk/ look-IMP the /ðə/ the morn /mɔːrn/ morning-SG in /ɪn/ in-PREP russet /ˈrʊsɪt/ reddish-brown-ADJ mantle /ˈmæntl/ cloak-SG clad /klæd/ clothed-PAST.PTCP walks /wɔːks/ walks-3SG.PRES o’er /oːr/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the dew /djuː/ dew-SG of /ɒv/ of-PREP yon /jɒn/ that-yonder-DEM high /həɪ/ high-ADJ eastward /ˈiːstwərd/ eastward-ADJ hill /hɪl/ hill-SG
80.13a I I am am in in blood blood stepp’d stepped in in so so far far that that should should I I wade wade no no more more returning returning were would-be as as tedious tedious as as go go o’er over
80.13b I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG am /æm/ am-1SG.PRES in /ɪn/ in-PREP blood /blʊd/ blood-SG stepp’d /stɛpt/ stepped-PAST.PTCP in /ɪn/ in-ADV so /soː/ so-ADV far /fɑːr/ far-ADV that /ðæt/ that-CONJ should /ʃʊd/ should-SUBJ I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG wade /weɪd/ wade-INF no /noː/ no more /moːr/ more-ADV returning /rɪˈtɜːrnɪŋ/ returning-GER were /wɜːr/ were-SUBJ(would be) as /æz/ as-ADV tedious /ˈtiːdɪəs/ tedious-ADJ as /æz/ as-CONJ go /goː/ go-INF o’er /oːr/ over-ADV(across)
80.14a Joy joy shall shall be be in in heaven heaven over over one one sinner sinner that who repenteth repents
80.14b Joy /dʒɔɪ/ joy-SG shall /ʃæl/ shall-FUT be /biː/ be-INF in /ɪn/ in-PREP heaven /ˈhɛvən/ heaven-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(cause) one /wʊn/ one-NUM sinner /ˈsɪnər/ sinner-SG that /ðæt/ who-REL repenteth /rɪˈpɛntəθ/ repents-3SG.PRES
80.15a Let let them them have have dominion dominion over over the the fish fish of of the the sea sea and and over over the the fowl birds of of the the air air
80.15b Let /lɛt/ let-IMP them /ðɛm/ them-ACC.3PL have /hæv/ have-INF dominion /dəˈmɪnɪən/ rule-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(rule) the /ðə/ the fish /fɪʃ/ fish-PL of /ɒv/ of-PREP the /ðə/ the sea /siː/ sea-SG and /ænd/ and-CONJ over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(rule) the /ðə/ the fowl /faʊl/ bird-PL(collective) of /ɒv/ of-PREP the /ðə/ the air /ɛər/ air-SG
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80.1 Over hill, over dale. → "Over hill and valley." (Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, II.i)
80.2 My cup runneth over. → "My cup overflows." (Psalm 23:5, King James Bible)
80.3 Give o’er the play. → "Stop the play." (Shakespeare, Hamlet, III.ii)
80.4 He leapt o’er the wall. → "He jumped over the wall."
80.5 Read the letter over. → "Read the letter through."
80.6 The king hath power over all his realm. → "The king has power over his whole kingdom."
80.7 She wept over the letter all the night. → "She cried over the letter all night long."
80.8 We shall ride over the bridge ere noon. → "We will ride across the bridge before noon."
80.9 Hang thy cloak o’er yonder chair. → "Hang your cloak over that chair."
80.10 The candlestick over against the table. → "The candlestick opposite the table." (Exodus 26:35, King James Bible)
80.11 With love’s light wings did I o’erperch these walls. → "I flew over these walls on love’s light wings." (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, II.ii)
80.12 But look, the morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill. → "But look, the morning, dressed in a reddish-brown cloak, walks across the dew of that high hill to the east." (Shakespeare, Hamlet, I.i)
80.13 I am in blood stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more, returning were as tedious as go o’er. → "I have waded so far into blood that, if I went no further, going back would be as wearisome as crossing over." (Shakespeare, Macbeth, III.iv)
80.14 Joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth. → "There will be joy in heaven over one sinner who repents." (Luke 15:7, King James Bible)
80.15 Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air. → "Let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air." (Genesis 1:26, King James Bible)
Examples 80.4–80.9 are constructed for teaching, from vocabulary and patterns of the period; they are not quotations.
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80.1 Over hill, over dale.
80.2 My cup runneth over.
80.3 Give o’er the play.
80.4 He leapt o’er the wall.
80.5 Read the letter over.
80.6 The king hath power over all his realm.
80.7 She wept over the letter all the night.
80.8 We shall ride over the bridge ere noon.
80.9 Hang thy cloak o’er yonder chair.
80.10 The candlestick over against the table.
80.11 With love’s light wings did I o’erperch these walls.
80.12 But look, the morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill.
80.13 I am in blood stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more, returning were as tedious as go o’er.
80.14 Joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth.
80.15 Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air.
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These are the grammar rules for over in Elizabethan English:
1. One Form, Two Spellings
Over does not inflect. It has no plural, no case and no tense. It has two spellings: over, two syllables, and o’er, one. The choice is about metre and not about grammar. O’er is common in verse (80.11–80.13), and the printed plays use it in prose speeches too (80.3, and Hamlet’s o’erstep); the King James Bible quotations in this lesson all have over (80.2, 80.10, 80.14, 80.15). The texts of the period are not consistent, and modern editions of the same line may print o’er-perch or o’erperch.
2. The Preposition of Place: Above
Over with a noun says that one thing is higher than another, touching it or not: the star… stood over where the young child was (Matthew 2:9); being o’er my head (Romeo and Juliet, II.ii). Hang thy cloak o’er yonder chair (80.9) is the same sense, with the cloak lying on and across the chair.
3. The Preposition of Place: Across and Throughout
With a verb of motion, over means "across, from one side to the other": He leapt o’er the wall (80.4), We shall ride over the bridge (80.8), walks o’er the dew (80.12), o’erperch these walls (80.11). In Over hill, over dale (80.1, Section F) the sense is "all about, across one place after another". There the preposition stands before a bare noun without an article, as it often does in proverbial pairs.
4. Rule and Authority
From "above" comes "in command of": The king hath power over all his realm (80.6), dominion over the fish of the sea (80.15). The nouns that take this over are words of rule: power, dominion, authority, command.
5. The Object of a Feeling
After words of grief and joy, over gives the thing that the feeling is about: She wept over the letter (80.7), joy… over one sinner that repenteth (80.14). Luke 15:7 sets it twice in one sentence: joy… over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons.
6. The Adverb and Its Fixed Phrases
Without a noun after it, over is an adverb, and it combines with a verb to make one meaning:
run over "overflow": My cup runneth over (80.2)
go o’er "go across, reach the far side": as tedious as go o’er (80.13)
read over "read through from start to end": Read the letter over (80.5)
give o’er "cease, stop": Give o’er the play (80.3)
In Give o’er the play the phrase takes a direct object, the play. This is not the modern "give over to someone"; the meaning is "leave off".
7. Over Against
Over against is a compound preposition meaning "opposite, facing": the candlestick over against the table (80.10). It is frequent in the King James Bible. It says nothing about enmity: the candlestick is simply on the other side, facing the table.
8. The Prefix over- and o’er-
Over makes compounds, and the prefix takes either spelling: o’erperch "fly up over" (80.11), o’erstep "step beyond", overdone "done to excess". The sense of excess, "too much", is already clear in Hamlet’s advice to the players: o’erstep not the modesty of nature: for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing.
9. Over in the Old Tense System
The examples also show the period’s verbs at work around over: runneth (80.2) and repenteth (80.14), with the -eth ending of the third person singular; hath (80.6) for "has"; did I o’erperch (80.11), with did as an auxiliary in a plain statement and the subject after it; and returning were as tedious (80.13), in which were is a subjunctive meaning "would be".
Common Mistakes
✦ Reading o’er as two syllables. In verse it is one: Walks O’ER the DEW keeps the beat. Restoring "over" spoils the line.
✦ Reading o’er as non-rhotic "or". The r is sounded, /oːr/.
✦ Taking over against as "in opposition to". It means "opposite, facing" (80.10).
✦ Taking give o’er as "hand over". Give o’er the play means "stop the play" (80.3).
✦ Taking thorough in the Fairy’s speech as the modern "thorough" (complete). It is the old form of through (Section F).
✦ Writing the apostrophe wrongly: the mark stands for the lost v, so it is o’er, not "oe’r".
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Frequency and Register
Over is one of the commonest prepositions of English in every period. In Elizabethan verse its contracted form o’er is one of the marks of the poetic register, alongside e’er, ne’er and e’en. The poets used it to fit the word into a ten-syllable line. Modern readers meet o’er chiefly in hymns and older poetry, and so it can sound "poetic" or archaic; to an Elizabethan reader it was simply the quicker way of saying the word.
The King James Bible
The translators of 1611 use over in its full form, and several of its most familiar sentences turn on it. Psalm 23:5 ends my cup runneth over. In Genesis 1:26 the word is repeated five times, once for each part of the living world, to mark the extent of the dominion given to mankind: over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. In Matthew 2:9 the star came and stood over where the young child was. And the parable of the lost sheep closes with joy… over one sinner that repenteth (Luke 15:7).
The phrase over against is everywhere in the Bible’s descriptions of buildings and of land, as in the plan of the tabernacle in Exodus 26:35. It is a common way of saying "opposite" in the English of the period.
The Theatre
Hamlet’s advice to the players (III.ii) uses over twice in one breath, once as o’erstep and once as overdone, and the two words carry the speech’s teaching: an actor who goes beyond nature defeats the purpose of playing. Later in the same scene, when the King rises during the play within the play, Polonius calls Give o’er the play, and the performance breaks off.
In Romeo and Juliet (II.ii), the word marks the height and distance between the lovers. Juliet on her balcony is o’er my head, glorious As is a winged messenger of heaven, and Romeo tells her he crossed the orchard wall on wings: With love’s light wings did I o’erperch these walls.
Macbeth’s go o’er (III.iv) is the river image in reverse. He pictures himself in a river of blood, so far from the bank that going back would be as wearisome as going across to the other side.
Idioms
Over and over "again and again"; all over "everywhere in"; give over "cease". The first two survive unchanged; give over is now rare.
From Old English to Shakespeare
Ofer in Old English already had the senses of place, across and over. Readers of the Old English course will remember ofer hronrāde in Beowulf. Between Old English and Shakespeare the f between vowels came to be written v, and ofer became over. The contracted spelling o’er is the poets’ way of marking the one-syllable pronunciation on the page.
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William Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Act II, Scene i, the opening of the scene (c. 1595). Puck meets one of the fairies of Titania’s train in the wood and asks How now, spirit! whither wander you? The Fairy answers with this speech. The text follows the MIT Shakespeare (Globe) text and the Project Gutenberg text, which agree word for word. (Gutenberg prints "Fairy Queen" with capitals.)
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Over over hill hill over over dale valley
F.1b Over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP hill /hɪl/ hill-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP dale /deɪl/ valley-SG
F.2a Thorough through bush bush thorough through brier briar
F.2b Thorough /ˈθʊrə/ through-PREP bush /bʊʃ/ bush-SG thorough /ˈθʊrə/ through-PREP brier /ˈbrəɪər/ briar-SG
F.3a Over over park park over over pale fence
F.3b Over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP park /pɑːrk/ park-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP pale /peɪl/ fence-SG
F.4a Thorough through flood flood thorough through fire fire
F.4b Thorough /ˈθʊrə/ through-PREP flood /flʊd/ flood-SG thorough /ˈθʊrə/ through-PREP fire /fəɪr/ fire-SG
F.5a I I do do wander wander everywhere everywhere
F.5b I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG do /duː/ do-AUX.1SG.PRES wander /ˈwɒndər/ wander-INF everywhere /ˈɛvrɪhwɛər/ everywhere-ADV
F.6a Swifter swifter than than the the moon’s moon's sphere sphere
F.6b Swifter /ˈswɪftər/ swift-COMP than /ðæn/ than-CONJ the /ðə/ the moon’s /muːnz/ moon-GEN sphere /sfɪər/ sphere-SG
F.7a And and I I serve serve the the fairy fairy queen queen
F.7b And /ænd/ and-CONJ I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG serve /sɜːrv/ serve-1SG.PRES the /ðə/ the fairy /ˈfɛəri/ fairy-ADJ queen /kwiːn/ queen-SG
F.8a To to dew bedew her her orbs rings upon upon the the green grass
F.8b To /tuː/ to-INF dew /djuː/ bedew-INF her /hɜːr/ her-POSS.3SG.F orbs /ɔːrbz/ fairy-ring-PL upon /əˈpɒn/ upon-PREP the /ðə/ the green /griːn/ green-SG(grass)
F-B: Full Text with Translation
Over hill, over dale, Thorough bush, thorough brier, Over park, over pale, Thorough flood, thorough fire, I do wander everywhere, Swifter than the moon’s sphere; And I serve the fairy queen, To dew her orbs upon the green.
→ "Over hill and valley, through bush and briar, over park and fence, through flood and fire, I wander everywhere, faster than the moon’s sphere turns; and I serve the fairy queen, sprinkling dew on her fairy rings on the grass."
— William Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, II.i
F-C: Original Text Only
Over hill, over dale, Thorough bush, thorough brier, Over park, over pale, Thorough flood, thorough fire, I do wander everywhere, Swifter than the moon’s sphere; And I serve the fairy queen, To dew her orbs upon the green.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Over… thorough: the speech is built on two prepositions, over for the open land the fairy flies across (hill, dale, park, pale) and thorough for what she passes through (bush, brier, flood, fire). Each preposition stands before a bare noun, with no article, which gives the lines their quick, listing movement. This is rule 3 of Section D.
Thorough: the older two-syllable form of through. The poet needs two syllables here: THO-rough BUSH, THO-rough BRI-er. The modern adjective "thorough" (complete, done all the way through) comes from the same word.
pale: a fence of pointed stakes, especially round a park. A park in the period was an enclosed hunting ground, so over park, over pale is "over the hunting park and over its fence". The phrase "beyond the pale" uses the same noun.
I do wander: do is an auxiliary in a plain statement, with no emphasis or question. Elizabethan English used it freely in this way, and here it also supplies a syllable for the metre.
the moon’s sphere: in the old astronomy each planet, the moon among them, was carried round the earth on a transparent sphere. The fairy claims to travel faster than the sphere of the moon turns.
To dew her orbs: dew is a verb here, "to wet with dew", and orbs are the fairy rings, circles of darker grass that country people believed were made by fairies dancing.
The metre: these are short rhyming lines of six to eight syllables, quite unlike the ten-syllable blank verse spoken by many of the human characters in the play. The repeated over and thorough at the start of the lines set the rhythm. In this speech the word is printed in its full form, over, because the line needs both syllables.
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A traveller new to London takes a boat across the Thames to the playhouses on Bankside, and talks with the waterman who rows him. Playgoers from the City often went over the river by boat. (A constructed dialogue for teaching, not a quotation.)
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
80.16a Traveller traveller Good good waterman boatman wilt will thou you row row me me over over the the river river
80.16b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG Good /gʊd/ good-ADJ waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG wilt /wɪlt/ will-2SG.PRES thou /ðaʊ/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM row /roː/ row-INF me /miː/ me-ACC.1SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the river /ˈrɪvər/ river-SG
80.17a Waterman boatman Ay yes sir sir step step in in and and I I will will row row you you over over
80.17b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG Ay /əɪ/ yes-INTERJ sir /sɜːr/ sir-VOC step /stɛp/ step-IMP in /ɪn/ in-ADV and /ænd/ and-CONJ I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG will /wɪl/ will-FUT row /roː/ row-INF you /juː/ you-ACC.2.POL over /ˈoːvər/ over-ADV(across)
80.18a Traveller traveller The the wind wind is is high high over over the the water water today today
80.18b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG The /ðə/ the wind /wɪnd/ wind-SG is /ɪz/ is-3SG.PRES high /həɪ/ high-ADJ over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(above) the /ðə/ the water /ˈwɔːtər/ water-SG today /təˈdeɪ/ today-ADV
80.19a Waterman boatman Fear fear not not I I have have rowed rowed o’er over in in worse worse weather weather than than this this
80.19b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG Fear /fɪər/ fear-IMP not /nɒt/ not-NEG I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG have /hæv/ have-1SG.PRES.AUX rowed /roːd/ rowed-PAST.PTCP o’er /oːr/ over-ADV(across) in /ɪn/ in-PREP worse /wɜːrs/ bad-COMP weather /ˈwɛðər/ weather-SG than /ðæn/ than-CONJ this /ðɪs/ this-DEM
80.20a Traveller traveller What what flag flag is is that that which which flies flies over over yonder that house house
80.20b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG What /hwɒt/ what-INTERR flag /flæg/ flag-SG is /ɪz/ is-3SG.PRES that /ðæt/ that-DEM which /hwɪtʃ/ which-REL flies /fləɪz/ flies-3SG.PRES over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(above) yonder /ˈjɒndər/ that-yonder-DEM house /haʊs/ house-SG
80.21a Waterman boatman That that is is the the Globe Globe they they hang hang it it o’er over the the roof roof when when there there is is a a play play
80.21b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG That /ðæt/ that-DEM is /ɪz/ is-3SG.PRES the /ðə/ the Globe /gloːb/ Globe-NAME they /ðeɪ/ they-NOM.3PL hang /hæŋ/ hang-3PL.PRES it /ɪt/ it-ACC.3SG o’er /oːr/ over-PREP(above) the /ðə/ the roof /ruːf/ roof-SG when /hwɛn/ when-CONJ there /ðɛər/ there-EXPL is /ɪz/ is-3SG.PRES a /ə/ a play /pleɪ/ play-SG
80.22a Traveller traveller And and what what standeth stands over over against against it it on on the the other other bank bank
80.22b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG And /ænd/ and-CONJ what /hwɒt/ what-INTERR standeth /ˈstændəθ/ stands-3SG.PRES over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP against /əˈgɛnst/ against-PREP(over-against = opposite) it /ɪt/ it-ACC.3SG on /ɒn/ on-PREP the /ðə/ the other /ˈʊðər/ other-ADJ bank /bæŋk/ bank-SG
80.23a Waterman boatman Over over against against it it standeth stands the the city city and and Paul’s Paul's church church over over all all the the roofs roofs
80.23b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG Over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP against /əˈgɛnst/ against-PREP(over-against = opposite) it /ɪt/ it-ACC.3SG standeth /ˈstændəθ/ stands-3SG.PRES the /ðə/ the city /ˈsɪti/ city-SG and /ænd/ and-CONJ Paul’s /pɔːlz/ Paul-GEN church /tʃɜːrtʃ/ church-SG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(above) all /ɔːl/ all the /ðə/ the roofs /ruːfs/ roof-PL
80.24a Traveller traveller I I have have heard heard men men speak speak of of this this play play all all over over the the town town
80.24b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG have /hæv/ have-1SG.PRES.AUX heard /hɛːrd/ heard-PAST.PTCP men /mɛn/ man-PL speak /spiːk/ speak-INF of /ɒv/ of-PREP this /ðɪs/ this-DEM play /pleɪ/ play-SG all /ɔːl/ all-ADV over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(throughout) the /ðə/ the town /taʊn/ town-SG
80.25a Waterman boatman Then then hold hold fast fast sir sir for for we we are are now now half half over over
80.25b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG Then /ðɛn/ then-ADV hold /hoːld/ hold-IMP fast /fæst/ firmly-ADV sir /sɜːr/ sir-VOC for /fɔːr/ for-CONJ we /wiː/ we-NOM.1PL are /ɑːr/ are-1PL.PRES now /naʊ/ now-ADV half /hæf/ half-ADV over /ˈoːvər/ over-ADV(across)
80.26a Traveller traveller Look look how how the the gulls gulls wheel circle over over our our heads heads
80.26b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG Look /lʊk/ look-IMP how /haʊ/ how-ADV the /ðə/ the gulls /gʊlz/ gull-PL wheel /hwiːl/ circle-3PL.PRES over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(above) our /aʊr/ our-POSS.1PL heads /hɛdz/ head-PL
80.27a Waterman boatman They they follow follow us us over over the the water water for for our our scraps scraps
80.27b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG They /ðeɪ/ they-NOM.3PL follow /ˈfɒloː/ follow-3PL.PRES us /ʊs/ us-ACC.1PL over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the water /ˈwɔːtər/ water-SG for /fɔːr/ for-PREP our /aʊr/ our-POSS.1PL scraps /skræps/ scrap-PL
80.28a Traveller traveller I I would would not not fall fall over over the the side side for for all all the the world world
80.28b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG would /wʊd/ would-COND not /nɒt/ not-NEG fall /fɔːl/ fall-INF over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the side /səɪd/ side-SG for /fɔːr/ for-PREP all /ɔːl/ all the /ðə/ the world /wɜːrld/ world-SG
80.29a Waterman boatman Then then lean lean not not over over it it sir sir and and you you shall shall be be safe safe
80.29b Waterman /ˈwɔːtərmən/ boatman-SG Then /ðɛn/ then-ADV lean /liːn/ lean-IMP not /nɒt/ not-NEG over /ˈoːvər/ over-PREP(above) it /ɪt/ it-ACC.3SG sir /sɜːr/ sir-VOC and /ænd/ and-CONJ you /juː/ you-NOM.2.POL shall /ʃæl/ shall-FUT be /biː/ be-INF safe /seɪf/ safe-ADJ
80.30a Traveller traveller God God be be thanked thanked we we are are over over here here is is thy your fare fare and and I I will will step step o’er over the the plank plank
80.30b Traveller /ˈtrævələr/ traveller-SG God /gɒd/ God-NAME be /biː/ be-SUBJ thanked /θæŋkt/ thanked-PAST.PTCP we /wiː/ we-NOM.1PL are /ɑːr/ are-1PL.PRES over /ˈoːvər/ over-ADV(across) here /hiːr/ here-ADV is /ɪz/ is-3SG.PRES thy /ðəɪ/ your-POSS.2SG.FAM fare /fɛər/ fare-SG and /ænd/ and-CONJ I /əɪ/ I-NOM.1SG will /wɪl/ will-FUT step /stɛp/ step-INF o’er /oːr/ over-PREP(across) the /ðə/ the plank /plæŋk/ plank-SG
Part B: Natural Sentences
80.16 Traveller: "Good waterman, wilt thou row me over the river?" → Traveller: "Good boatman, will you row me across the river?"
80.17 Waterman: "Ay, sir; step in, and I will row you over." → Waterman: "Yes, sir; get in, and I will row you across."
80.18 Traveller: "The wind is high over the water today." → Traveller: "The wind is strong over the water today."
80.19 Waterman: "Fear not; I have rowed o’er in worse weather than this." → Waterman: "Don’t be afraid; I have rowed across in worse weather than this."
80.20 Traveller: "What flag is that which flies over yonder house?" → Traveller: "What is that flag flying over that building there?"
80.21 Waterman: "That is the Globe; they hang it o’er the roof when there is a play." → Waterman: "That is the Globe; they hang it above the roof when there is a play on."
80.22 Traveller: "And what standeth over against it, on the other bank?" → Traveller: "And what stands opposite it, on the other bank?"
80.23 Waterman: "Over against it standeth the city, and Paul’s church over all the roofs." → Waterman: "Opposite it stands the City, with St Paul’s church above all the roofs."
80.24 Traveller: "I have heard men speak of this play all over the town." → Traveller: "I have heard people talk about this play all over town."
80.25 Waterman: "Then hold fast, sir, for we are now half over." → Waterman: "Then hold on tight, sir, for we are now halfway across."
80.26 Traveller: "Look how the gulls wheel over our heads!" → Traveller: "Look how the gulls circle above our heads!"
80.27 Waterman: "They follow us over the water for our scraps." → Waterman: "They follow us across the water for our scraps."
80.28 Traveller: "I would not fall over the side for all the world." → Traveller: "I would not fall overboard for anything in the world."
80.29 Waterman: "Then lean not over it, sir, and you shall be safe." → Waterman: "Then don’t lean over it, sir, and you will be safe."
80.30 Traveller: "God be thanked, we are over! Here is thy fare, and I will step o’er the plank." → Traveller: "Thank God, we are across! Here is your fare, and I’ll step over the plank."
Part C: Elizabethan Text Only
80.16 Traveller: "Good waterman, wilt thou row me over the river?"
80.17 Waterman: "Ay, sir; step in, and I will row you over."
80.18 Traveller: "The wind is high over the water today."
80.19 Waterman: "Fear not; I have rowed o’er in worse weather than this."
80.20 Traveller: "What flag is that which flies over yonder house?"
80.21 Waterman: "That is the Globe; they hang it o’er the roof when there is a play."
80.22 Traveller: "And what standeth over against it, on the other bank?"
80.23 Waterman: "Over against it standeth the city, and Paul’s church over all the roofs."
80.24 Traveller: "I have heard men speak of this play all over the town."
80.25 Waterman: "Then hold fast, sir, for we are now half over."
80.26 Traveller: "Look how the gulls wheel over our heads!"
80.27 Waterman: "They follow us over the water for our scraps."
80.28 Traveller: "I would not fall over the side for all the world."
80.29 Waterman: "Then lean not over it, sir, and you shall be safe."
80.30 Traveller: "God be thanked, we are over! Here is thy fare, and I will step o’er the plank."
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The speakers are named before their words: the Traveller and the Waterman, the name of the period for a man who rowed passengers on the Thames.
Across: the commonest sense in a crossing is "from one bank to the other". Row me over the river (80.16) has over as a preposition with its noun; I will row you over (80.17), I have rowed o’er (80.19), we are now half over (80.25) and we are over (80.30) have it as an adverb, the river understood. Half over means "halfway across".
Above: The wind is high over the water (80.18), flies over yonder house (80.20), o’er the roof (80.21), over all the roofs (80.23), over our heads (80.26) and lean not over it (80.29) all place one thing higher than another.
Over against: the traveller asks what stands over against the playhouse (80.22), and the waterman answers with the same phrase (80.23): "opposite, on the far bank". It is Section D, rule 7, used in the plain way of the period.
All over: all over the town (80.24) means "everywhere in the town". All strengthens over here, as it still does.
Thou and you: the traveller says thou and thy to the waterman (80.16, 80.30), the familiar form used to a social inferior; the waterman says you and sir to his passenger (80.17, 80.29), the respectful form. The same difference was noted in Lesson 79.
Verb forms: wilt thou (80.16) is the second person singular of will; standeth (80.22, 80.23) has the -eth ending; Fear not (80.19) and lean not (80.29) make the negative imperative without do, as the period often did; God be thanked (80.30) is a subjunctive of wish.
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over and o’er: over /ˈoːvər/ has two syllables, o’er /oːr/ one. Both have the long pure /oː/ of Original Pronunciation and a sounded r. The other words of this lesson with the same vowel are written the same way: go /goː/, so /soː/, no /noː/, row /roː/, cloak /kloːk/, hold /hoːld/, Globe /gloːb/.
The apostrophe: in o’er, stepp’d (80.13) and o’erperch (80.11) the apostrophe stands for a letter that is not sounded. Stepp’d is one syllable, /stɛpt/; written stepped, a reader of the time might have sounded the -ed as a separate syllable.
The -eth ending: runneth, repenteth, standeth, creepeth are spoken with a light /əθ/.
wh-: what, which, when, wheel, everywhere begin with /hw/, as in earlier lessons.
thorough: in Section F, thorough is the old form of through, two syllables /ˈθʊrə/.
Spellings in the quotations: o’erperch follows the Project Gutenberg text (the MIT text prints o’er-perch); brier is the spelling of both texts of A Midsummer Night’s Dream for "briar"; the King James Bible quotations keep the spellings of the standard modern printing of the 1611 text.
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