In Modern Hebrew, the English preposition “by” is expressed through different constructions depending on whether you’re indicating agency (who performed an action), means (how something was done), or location (proximity). The most important distinction for learners is between עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei), which indicates agency or the intermediary through which something happens, and the prefix בְּ (be-), which indicates instrumentality or means.
עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) literally means “upon the hands of” and is used in passive constructions or to show that something was accomplished through someone’s agency. It’s the standard way to express “by” when indicating who did something: “The book was written by the author” → הַסֵּפֶר נִכְתַּב עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּחַבֵּר (ha-sefer nikhtav al-yedei ha-mekhaber).
The prefix בְּ (be-), which attaches directly to nouns, indicates the instrument or means: “by car” → בְּמְכוֹנִית (bi-mekhonit), “by phone” → בְּטֶלֶפוֹן (be-telefon). This prefix is one of the most common in Hebrew and changes slightly based on the first letter of the word it attaches to.
Additionally, לְיַד (le-yad) means “by” in the sense of “beside” or “near,” and אֵצֶל (etsel) indicates “at someone’s place” or “near someone.”
Understanding these distinctions is crucial because Hebrew doesn’t have a single equivalent to English “by” - the language makes explicit distinctions that English leaves ambiguous.
Link to course index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Key Takeaways: -
עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) = by (agency/intermediary) - “through the hands of” -
בְּ (be-) = by (means/instrument) - prefix indicating “with/by means of” -
לְיַד (le-yad) = by (location) - “beside, next to” -
אֵצֶל (etsel) = by (person’s location) - “at, near (someone)” -
Hebrew makes explicit distinctions where English uses one word -
The בְּ prefix changes form based on the following letter (בְּ, בִּ, or בַּ)
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32.1a הַסֵּפֶר (ha-sefer) the-book נִכְתַּב (nikhtav) was-written עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמּוֹרֶה (ha-moreh) the-teacher
32.1b Ha-sefer (ha-sefer) the-book nikhtav (nikhtav) was-written al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-moreh (ha-moreh) the-teacher
32.2a אֲנִי (ani) I נוֹסֵעַ (nosea) travel לַעֲבוֹדָה (la-avodah) to-work בְּאוֹטוֹבּוּס (be-otobus) by-bus
32.2b Ani (ani) I nosea (nosea) travel la-avodah (la-avodah) to-work be-otobus (be-otobus) by-bus
32.3a הַבַּיִת (ha-bayit) the-house נִבְנָה (nivnah) was-built עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַקְּבוּצָה (ha-kevutsah) the-group
32.3b Ha-bayit (ha-bayit) the-house nivnah (nivnah) was-built al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-kevutsah (ha-kevutsah) the-group
32.4a הִיא (hi) she שָׁלְחָה (shal’khah) sent מִכְתָּב (mikhtav) letter בְּדֹאַר (be-do’ar) by-mail
32.4b Hi (hi) she shal’khah (shal’khah) sent mikhtav (mikhtav) letter be-do’ar (be-do’ar) by-mail
32.5a הַיֶּלֶד (ha-yeled) the-boy עוֹמֵד (omed) stands לְיַד (le-yad) by הַדֶּלֶת (ha-delet) the-door
32.5b Ha-yeled (ha-yeled) the-boy omed (omed) stands le-yad (le-yad) by ha-delet (ha-delet) the-door
32.6a הַתּוֹכְנִית (ha-tokhnit) the-program אוּשְׁרָה (ush’rah) was-approved עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמְּנַהֵל (ha-menahel) the-director
32.6b Ha-tokhnit (ha-tokhnit) the-program ush’rah (ush’rah) was-approved al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-menahel (ha-menahel) the-director
32.7a הוּא (hu) he מְדַבֵּר (medaber) speaks בְּטֶלֶפוֹן (be-telefon) by-phone כָּל (kol) every יוֹם (yom) day
32.7b Hu (hu) he medaber (medaber) speaks be-telefon (be-telefon) by-phone kol (kol) every yom (yom) day
32.8a הַמַּאֲמָר (ha-ma’amar) the-article פּוּרְסַם (pursam) was-published עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הָעִתּוֹן (ha-iton) the-newspaper
32.8b Ha-ma’amar (ha-ma’amar) the-article pursam (pursam) was-published al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-iton (ha-iton) the-newspaper
32.9a אֲנַחְנוּ (anakhnu) we גָּרִים (garim) live אֵצֶל (etsel) by דּוֹדִי (dodi) my-uncle
32.9b Anakhnu (anakhnu) we garim (garim) live etsel (etsel) by dodi (dodi) my-uncle
32.10a הַחֶדֶר (ha-kheder) the-room נוֹקָה (nukah) was-cleaned עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַתַּלְמִידִים (ha-talmidim) the-students
32.10b Ha-kheder (ha-kheder) the-room nukah (nukah) was-cleaned al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-talmidim (ha-talmidim) the-students
32.11a הִיא (hi) she מַגִּיעָה (magia) arrives בְּרַכֶּבֶת (ba-rakevet) by-train בַּבֹּקֶר (ba-boker) in-the-morning
32.11b Hi (hi) she magia (magia) arrives ba-rakevet (ba-rakevet) by-train ba-boker (ba-boker) in-the-morning
32.12a הַתְּשׁוּבָה (ha-teshuvah) the-answer נִמְצְאָה (nimtse’ah) was-found עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמְּדַעְנִים (ha-mada’nim) the-scientists
32.12b Ha-teshuvah (ha-teshuvah) the-answer nimtse’ah (nimtse’ah) was-found al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-mada’nim (ha-mada’nim) the-scientists
32.13a הֵם (hem) they יוֹשְׁבִים (yosh’vim) sit לְיַד (le-yad) by הַיָּם (ha-yam) the-sea
32.13b Hem (hem) they yosh’vim (yosh’vim) sit le-yad (le-yad) by ha-yam (ha-yam) the-sea
32.14a הַמְּשִׂימָה (ha-mesimah) the-task הוּשְׁלְמָה (hush’lemah) was-completed עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַצֶּוֶת (ha-tsevet) the-team בְּהַצְלָחָה (be-hatslaḥah) by-success/successfully
32.14b Ha-mesimah (ha-mesimah) the-task hush’lemah (hush’lemah) was-completed al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-tsevet (ha-tsevet) the-team be-hatslaḥah (be-hatslaḥah) by-success/successfully
32.15a אַתָּה (atah) you יָכוֹל (yakhol) can לִשְׁלֹחַ (lish’loaḥ) to-send אֶת (et) ACC הַמִּסְמָךְ (ha-mismakh) the-document בְּפַקְס (be-faks) by-fax אוֹ (o) or בְּדֹאַר (be-do’ar) by-mail אֶלֶקְטְרוֹנִי (elektroni) electronic
32.15b Atah (atah) you yakhol (yakhol) can lish’loaḥ (lish’loaḥ) to-send et (et) ACC ha-mismakh (ha-mismakh) the-document be-faks (be-faks) by-fax o (o) or be-do’ar (be-do’ar) by-mail elektroni (elektroni) electronic
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32.1 הַסֵּפֶר נִכְתַּב עַל־יְדֵי הַמּוֹרֶה Ha-sefer nikhtav al-yedei ha-moreh “The book was written by the teacher”
32.2 אֲנִי נוֹסֵעַ לַעֲבוֹדָה בְּאוֹטוֹבּוּס Ani nosea la-avodah be-otobus “I travel to work by bus”
32.3 הַבַּיִת נִבְנָה עַל־יְדֵי הַקְּבוּצָה Ha-bayit nivnah al-yedei ha-kevutsah “The house was built by the group”
32.4 הִיא שָׁלְחָה מִכְתָּב בְּדֹאַר Hi shal’khah mikhtav be-do’ar “She sent a letter by mail”
32.5 הַיֶּלֶד עוֹמֵד לְיַד הַדֶּלֶת Ha-yeled omed le-yad ha-delet “The boy stands by the door”
32.6 הַתּוֹכְנִית אוּשְׁרָה עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּנַהֵל Ha-tokhnit ush’rah al-yedei ha-menahel “The program was approved by the director”
32.7 הוּא מְדַבֵּר בְּטֶלֶפוֹן כָּל יוֹם Hu medaber be-telefon kol yom “He speaks by phone every day”
32.8 הַמַּאֲמָר פּוּרְסַם עַל־יְדֵי הָעִתּוֹן Ha-ma’amar pursam al-yedei ha-iton “The article was published by the newspaper”
32.9 אֲנַחְנוּ גָּרִים אֵצֶל דּוֹדִי Anakhnu garim etsel dodi “We live by my uncle” (at my uncle’s place)
32.10 הַחֶדֶר נוֹקָה עַל־יְדֵי הַתַּלְמִידִים Ha-kheder nukah al-yedei ha-talmidim “The room was cleaned by the students”
32.11 הִיא מַגִּיעָה בְּרַכֶּבֶת בַּבֹּקֶר Hi magia ba-rakevet ba-boker “She arrives by train in the morning”
32.12 הַתְּשׁוּבָה נִמְצְאָה עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּדַעְנִים Ha-teshuvah nimtse’ah al-yedei ha-mada’nim “The answer was found by the scientists”
32.13 הֵם יוֹשְׁבִים לְיַד הַיָּם Hem yosh’vim le-yad ha-yam “They sit by the sea”
32.14 הַמְּשִׂימָה הוּשְׁלְמָה עַל־יְדֵי הַצֶּוֶת בְּהַצְלָחָה Ha-mesimah hush’lemah al-yedei ha-tsevet be-hatslaḥah “The task was completed by the team successfully”
32.15 אַתָּה יָכוֹל לִשְׁלֹחַ אֶת הַמִּסְמָךְ בְּפַקְס אוֹ בְּדֹאַר אֶלֶקְטְרוֹנִי Atah yakhol lish’loaḥ et ha-mismakh be-faks o be-do’ar elektroni “You can send the document by fax or by email”
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32.1 הַסֵּפֶר נִכְתַּב עַל־יְדֵי הַמּוֹרֶה Ha-sefer nikhtav al-yedei ha-moreh
32.2 אֲנִי נוֹסֵעַ לַעֲבוֹדָה בְּאוֹטוֹבּוּס Ani nosea la-avodah be-otobus
32.3 הַבַּיִת נִבְנָה עַל־יְדֵי הַקְּבוּצָה Ha-bayit nivnah al-yedei ha-kevutsah
32.4 הִיא שָׁלְחָה מִכְתָּב בְּדֹאַר Hi shal’khah mikhtav be-do’ar
32.5 הַיֶּלֶד עוֹמֵד לְיַד הַדֶּלֶת Ha-yeled omed le-yad ha-delet
32.6 הַתּוֹכְנִית אוּשְׁרָה עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּנַהֵל Ha-tokhnit ush’rah al-yedei ha-menahel
32.7 הוּא מְדַבֵּר בְּטֶלֶפוֹן כָּל יוֹם Hu medaber be-telefon kol yom
32.8 הַמַּאֲמָר פּוּרְסַם עַל־יְדֵי הָעִתּוֹן Ha-ma’amar pursam al-yedei ha-iton
32.9 אֲנַחְנוּ גָּרִים אֵצֶל דּוֹדִי Anakhnu garim etsel dodi
32.10 הַחֶדֶר נוֹקָה עַל־יְדֵי הַתַּלְמִידִים Ha-kheder nukah al-yedei ha-talmidim
32.11 הִיא מַגִּיעָה בְּרַכֶּבֶת בַּבֹּקֶר Hi magia ba-rakevet ba-boker
32.12 הַתְּשׁוּבָה נִמְצְאָה עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּדַעְנִים Ha-teshuvah nimtse’ah al-yedei ha-mada’nim
32.13 הֵם יוֹשְׁבִים לְיַד הַיָּם Hem yosh’vim le-yad ha-yam
32.14 הַמְּשִׂימָה הוּשְׁלְמָה עַל־יְדֵי הַצֶּוֶת בְּהַצְלָחָה Ha-mesimah hush’lemah al-yedei ha-tsevet be-hatslaḥah
32.15 אַתָּה יָכוֹל לִשְׁלֹחַ אֶת הַמִּסְמָךְ בְּפַקְס אוֹ בְּדֹאַר אֶלֶקְטְרוֹנִי Atah yakhol lish’loaḥ et ha-mismakh be-faks o be-do’ar elektroni
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These are the grammar rules for expressing “by” in Modern Hebrew
1. עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) - Agency/Intermediary
This compound preposition literally means “upon the hands of” and is used to indicate: -
The agent in passive constructions: “was done by someone” -
The intermediary through which something happens -
The means by which something is accomplished (more formal register)
Structure: עַל־יְדֵי + noun/pronoun
Examples: -
הַסֵּפֶר נִכְתַּב עַל־יְדֵי הַסּוֹפֵר (The book was written by the writer) -
הַהַחְלָטָה נִתְקַבְּלָה עַל־יְדֵי הַוַעֲדָה (The decision was made by the committee)
With Pronouns: When used with pronouns, they attach as possessive suffixes to יְדֵי: -
עַל־יָדִי (al-yadi) - by me -
עַל־יָדְךָ (al-yadkha) - by you (m.sg.) -
עַל־יָדֵךְ (al-yadekh) - by you (f.sg.) -
עַל־יָדוֹ (al-yado) - by him -
עַל־יָדָהּ (al-yadah) - by her -
עַל־יָדֵנוּ (al-yadenu) - by us -
עַל־יֶדְכֶם (al-yedkhem) - by you (m.pl.) -
עַל־יֶדְכֶן (al-yedkhen) - by you (f.pl.) -
עַל־יָדָם (al-yadam) - by them (m.) -
עַל־יָדָן (al-yadan) - by them (f.)
2. בְּ (be-) - Instrumental/Means (Prefix)
This is one of the most common prefixes in Hebrew and indicates: -
The instrument or means: “by car,” “by phone” -
The manner: “with difficulty” -
Sometimes temporal: “in the morning”
Important: The prefix changes form based on the first letter: -
Before most letters: בְּ (be-) → בְּטֶלֶפוֹן (be-telefon) -
Before ב, מ, פ: בִּ (bi-) → בִּמְכוֹנִית (bi-mekhonit) -
Before words with the definite article ה: בַּ (ba-) → בַּבַּיִת (ba-bayit)
Examples: -
נוֹסֵעַ בְּאוֹטוֹבּוּס (traveling by bus) -
שׁוֹלֵחַ בְּדֹאַר (sending by mail) -
בַּטֶּלֶפוֹן (by phone - note the dagesh)
3. לְיַד (le-yad) - Physical Proximity
Literally “to the hand/side,” this preposition means: -
“beside,” “next to,” “by” (location) -
Used for physical proximity to objects or places
Examples: -
עוֹמֵד לְיַד הַדֶּלֶת (standing by the door) -
יוֹשֵׁב לְיַד הַחַלּוֹן (sitting by the window)
4. אֵצֶל (etsel) - Personal Proximity
Used for: -
“at someone’s place,” “by someone” -
“near someone” (person-oriented) -
“at” (a professional or business)
Examples: -
גָּר אֵצֶל דּוֹדִי (living by/at my uncle’s place) -
הָיִיתִי אֵצֶל הָרוֹפֵא (I was at the doctor’s)
5. מֵאֵת (me’et) - Authorship/Source
Used to indicate: -
Authorship in formal contexts -
Source of something received -
“from” in the sense of agency
Example: -
שִׁיר מֵאֵת יְהוּדָה הַלֵּוִי (a poem by Yehuda Halevi)
עַל־יְדֵי vs. בְּ: -
עַל־יְדֵי emphasizes the AGENT (who/what did it) -
בְּ emphasizes the INSTRUMENT (what was used)
Compare: -
נִשְׁלַח עַל־יְדֵי הַדּוֹאָר (sent by the post office - the agent) -
נִשְׁלַח בְּדֹאַר (sent by mail - the means)
לְיַד vs. אֵצֶל: -
לְיַד for objects and places (physical “by”) -
אֵצֶל for people and establishments (relational “by/at”)
Hebrew passive voice (בניין נפעל or בניין פועל) commonly pairs with עַל־יְדֵי:
Pattern: Passive verb + עַל־יְדֵי + agent
Examples: -
נִכְתַּב (nikhtav - was written) + עַל־יְדֵי -
נִבְנָה (nivnah - was built) + עַל־יְדֵי -
אוּשְׁרָה (ush’rah - was approved) + עַל־יְדֵי
1. Using עַל־יְדֵי for instruments -
❌ Incorrect: *נוֹסֵעַ עַל־יְדֵי אוֹטוֹבּוּס -
✓ Correct: נוֹסֵעַ בְּאוֹטוֹבּוּס (traveling by bus)
2. Forgetting the hyphen in עַל־יְדֵי This is a compound preposition - the hyphen (מקף, makaf) is mandatory in standard orthography.
3. Confusing לְיַד and אֵצֶל -
❌ Incorrect: *גָּר לְיַד דּוֹדִי (unless you mean literally next door) -
✓ Correct: גָּר אֵצֶל דּוֹדִי (living at uncle’s place)
4. Using בְּ with the definite article incorrectly Remember: בְּ + הַ → בַּ -
✓ בַּבַּיִת (ba-bayit - in/by the house) -
❌ Not: *בְּהַבַּיִת
5. Overusing עַל־יְדֵי in modern colloquial speech In everyday Modern Hebrew, many speakers prefer shorter constructions. עַל־יְדֵי is often more formal/literary.
Function → Hebrew → Example
Agent (who) → עַל־יְדֵי → נִכְתַּב עַל־יְדֵי הַסּוֹפֵר (written by the author)
Instrument (with what) → בְּ → שׁוֹלֵחַ בְּפַקְס (sending by fax)
Location (where) → לְיַד → יוֹשֵׁב לְיַד הַיָּם (sitting by the sea)
Person’s place → אֵצֶל → גָּר אֵצֶל חֲבֵרִים (living by/at friends’)
Source/author → מֵאֵת → שִׁיר מֵאֵת הַמְּשׁוֹרֵר (poem by the poet)
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The multiple ways of expressing “by” in Hebrew reflect the language’s precision in distinguishing between different types of relationships - agency, instrumentality, proximity, and source. This is characteristic of Semitic languages, where prepositions and particles carry very specific semantic loads.
Historical Development: The compound preposition עַל־יְדֵי developed from the Biblical Hebrew phrase meaning “upon the hand of,” reflecting ancient conceptions of agency as something literally passing through someone’s hands. This metaphor persists in Modern Hebrew, though it’s now fossilized as a grammatical marker.
Register and Formality: -
עַל־יְדֵי is more common in written, formal, academic, and news Hebrew -
Colloquial speech often uses alternative constructions or simply omits the agent -
בְּ is used across all registers for instrumental meanings -
לְיַד and אֵצֶל are equally common in spoken and written Hebrew
Modern Usage Trends: In contemporary Israeli Hebrew, there’s a tendency to: -
Shorten עַל־יְדֵי to עַל־יַד (al-yad) in very informal speech -
Prefer active voice constructions over passive + עַל־יְדֵי -
Use בְּ more frequently for both means and agency in casual contexts
Regional Variations: Hebrew speakers from different backgrounds may show slight variations: -
Speakers influenced by Yiddish may use constructions parallel to “mit” (with) -
Arabic-influenced speakers may use patterns reflecting Arabic prepositional structure -
English-influenced younger speakers sometimes calque English “by” patterns
Practical Communication: Understanding when to use each form is essential for clear communication: -
Official documents and news reports heavily use עַל־יְדֵי -
Everyday conversation about transportation always uses בְּ -
Giving directions or describing locations requires לְיַד -
Discussing visiting people needs אֵצֶל
Idiomatic Expressions: -
עַל־יְדֵי כָּךְ (al-yedei kakh) - “thereby, by means of this” -
בְּעַצְמוֹ (be-atsmo) - “by himself” (literally “in his essence”) -
לְיַד זֶה (le-yad zeh) - “by the way, incidentally” (literally “by this”)
The distinction between these forms, which might seem redundant to English speakers, allows Hebrew to express nuances that English must convey through context or additional words.
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The following passage is from S.Y. Agnon’s (ש״י עגנון) story “עד הנה” (Ad Henah - “Thus Far”), 1952. Agnon was the first Hebrew writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature (1966). This excerpt demonstrates the formal use of עַל־יְדֵי in literary Hebrew:
כָּל (kol) every הַסִּפּּוּרִים (ha-sipurim) the-stories שֶׁבַּסֵּפֶר (she-ba-sefer) that-in-the-book הַזֶּה (ha-zeh) this נִכְתְּבוּ (nikht’vu) were-written עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמְּחַבֵּר (ha-mekhaber) the-author בִּשְׁנוֹת (bi-sh’not) in-years הַמִּלְחָמָה (ha-milkhamah) the-war וְ (ve-) and לְאַחֲרֶיהָ (le-akhareiha) after-it כְּדֵי (kedei) in-order לְהָעִיד (le-ha’id) to-testify עַל (al) on הַזְּמַן (ha-zman) the-time הַהוּא (ha-hu) that
Kol (kol) every ha-sipurim (ha-sipurim) the-stories she-ba-sefer (she-ba-sefer) that-in-the-book ha-zeh (ha-zeh) this nikht’vu (nikht’vu) were-written al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-mekhaber (ha-mekhaber) the-author bi-sh’not (bi-sh’not) in-years ha-milkhamah (ha-milkhamah) the-war ve- (ve-) and le-akhareiha (le-akhareiha) after-it kedei (kedei) in-order le-ha’id (le-ha’id) to-testify al (al) on ha-zman (ha-zman) the-time ha-hu (ha-hu) that
כָּל הַסִּפּּוּרִים שֶׁבַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה נִכְתְּבוּ עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּחַבֵּר בִּשְׁנוֹת הַמִּלְחָמָה וְלְאַחֲרֶיהָ כְּדֵי לְהָעִיד עַל הַזְּמַן הַהוּא.
Kol ha-sipurim she-ba-sefer ha-zeh nikht’vu al-yedei ha-mekhaber bi-sh’not ha-milkhamah ve-le-akhareiha kedei le-ha’id al ha-zman ha-hu.
“All the stories in this book were written by the author during the war years and after, in order to testify about that time.”
כָּל הַסִּפּּוּרִים שֶׁבַּסֵּפֶר הַזֶּה נִכְתְּבוּ עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּחַבֵּר בִּשְׁנוֹת הַמִּלְחָמָה וְלְאַחֲרֶיהָ כְּדֵי לְהָעִיד עַל הַזְּמַן הַהוּא.
Kol ha-sipurim she-ba-sefer ha-zeh nikht’vu al-yedei ha-mekhaber bi-sh’not ha-milkhamah ve-le-akhareiha kedei le-ha’id al ha-zman ha-hu.
Key Vocabulary: -
סִּפּּוּרִים (sipurim) - stories (plural of סִּפּּוּר) -
נִכְתְּבוּ (nikht’vu) - were written (passive, past, 3rd person plural) -
מְחַבֵּר (mekhaber) - author -
שְׁנוֹת (sh’not) - years (construct form of שָׁנִים) -
מִלְחָמָה (milkhamah) - war -
לְהָעִיד (le-ha’id) - to testify (infinitive construct)
Grammar Points: -
עַל־יְדֵי used in its classical literary sense to mark the agent of the passive verb נִכְתְּבוּ -
שֶׁ (she-) relative pronoun: “that/which” -
שֶׁבַּסֵּפֶר - compound: שֶׁ + בְּ + הַסֵּפֶר = “that in the book” -
לְאַחֲרֶיהָ - preposition לְאַחֲרֵי with 3rd person feminine singular suffix referring to מִלְחָמָה -
כְּדֵי + infinitive = purpose clause: “in order to”
This passage exemplifies Agnon’s characteristic narrative style - self-referential, metafictional, and formally precise. The use of עַל־יְדֵי הַמְּחַבֵּר (”by the author”) rather than a simpler construction demonstrates the formal literary register.
Agnon wrote this introduction in the years following World War II and the Holocaust, a period that profoundly shaped Hebrew literature. The choice of the passive voice with עַל־יְדֵי creates a certain distance - the author speaks of himself in third person, as if documenting historical events objectively. This grammatical choice reflects the tension in post-Holocaust literature between the need to witness and the impossibility of fully representing trauma.
The phrase לְהָעִיד עַל הַזְּמַן הַהוּא (to testify about that time) carries the weight of legal and religious testimony - הֵעִיד being the same verb used for giving witness in court. This shows how עַל־יְדֵי functions in the broader context of agency and responsibility in Hebrew - it’s not merely a grammatical marker but carries ethical weight about who acts and who bears witness.
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Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
32.16a הַמַּחֲקָר (ha-maḥkar) the-research הֶחָדָשׁ (he-khadash) the-new פּוּרְסַם (pursam) was-published עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הָאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה (ha-universita) the-university הָעִבְרִית (ha-ivrit) the-Hebrew בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם (bi-yerushalayim) in-Jerusalem
32.16b Ha-maḥkar (ha-maḥkar) the-research he-khadash (he-khadash) the-new pursam (pursam) was-published al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-universita (ha-universita) the-university ha-ivrit (ha-ivrit) the-Hebrew bi-yerushalayim (bi-yerushalayim) in-Jerusalem
32.17a הַמְּדַעְנִים (ha-mada’nim) the-scientists גִּלּוּ (gilu) discovered אֶת (et) ACC הַתּוֹצָאוֹת (ha-totsa’ot) the-results בְּעֶזְרַת (be-ezrat) by-help-of טֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה (tekhnologyah) technology מְתַקְדֶּמֶת (metakdemet) advanced
32.17b Ha-mada’nim (ha-mada’nim) the-scientists gilu (gilu) discovered et (et) ACC ha-totsa’ot (ha-totsa’ot) the-results be-ezrat (be-ezrat) by-help-of tekhnologyah (tekhnologyah) technology metakdemet (metakdemet) advanced
32.18a הַנָּתוּנִים (ha-natunim) the-data נֶאֶסְפוּ (ne’esfu) were-collected עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by צֶוֶת (tsevet) team בֵּינְלְאֻמִּי (beinle’umi) international שֶׁל (shel) of חוֹקְרִים (ḥok’rim) researchers
32.18b Ha-natunim (ha-natunim) the-data ne’esfu (ne’esfu) were-collected al-yedei (al-yedei) by tsevet (tsevet) team beinle’umi (beinle’umi) international shel (shel) of ḥok’rim (ḥok’rim) researchers
32.19a הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט (ha-proyekt) the-project מְמֻמָּן (memuman) is-funded עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמִּשְׂרָד (ha-misrad) the-ministry לְמַדָּע (le-mada) for-science וְ (ve-) and טֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה (tekhnologyah) technology
32.19b Ha-proyekt (ha-proyekt) the-project memuman (memuman) is-funded al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-misrad (ha-misrad) the-ministry le-mada (le-mada) for-science ve- (ve-) and tekhnologyah (tekhnologyah) technology
32.20a הַדּוֹ״ח (ha-do’aḥ) the-report מַרְאֶה (mar’eh) shows כִּי (ki) that הַשִּׁנּוּיִים (ha-shinuyim) the-changes בַּאַקְלִים (ba-aklim) in-the-climate נִגְרְמוּ (nig’r’mu) were-caused עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by פְּעִילוּת (pe’ilut) activity אֱנוֹשִׁית (enoshit) human
32.20b Ha-do’aḥ (ha-do’aḥ) the-report mar’eh (mar’eh) shows ki (ki) that ha-shinuyim (ha-shinuyim) the-changes ba-aklim (ba-aklim) in-the-climate nig’r’mu (nig’r’mu) were-caused al-yedei (al-yedei) by pe’ilut (pe’ilut) activity enoshit (enoshit) human
32.21a הַמִּסְמָכִים (ha-mismakhim) the-documents הוּעֲבְרוּ (hu’av’ru) were-transferred לַוַעֲדָה (la-va’adah) to-the-committee בְּדֹאַר (be-do’ar) by-mail רָשׁוּם (rashum) registered
32.21b Ha-mismakhim (ha-mismakhim) the-documents hu’av’ru (hu’av’ru) were-transferred la-va’adah (la-va’adah) to-the-committee be-do’ar (be-do’ar) by-mail rashum (rashum) registered
32.22a הַמֵּמְצָאִים (ha-memtsa’im) the-findings אוּשְׁרוּ (ush’ru) were-confirmed עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by מֻמְחִים (mumḥim) experts נוֹסָפִים (nosafim) additional בַּתְּחוּם (ba-teḥum) in-the-field
32.22b Ha-memtsa’im (ha-memtsa’im) the-findings ush’ru (ush’ru) were-confirmed al-yedei (al-yedei) by mumḥim (mumḥim) experts nosafim (nosafim) additional ba-teḥum (ba-teḥum) in-the-field
32.23a הַמֵּידָע (ha-meida) the-information הוֹפָץ (hofats) was-distributed בִּקְרַב (be-kerev) among הַקְּהִילָה (ha-kehilah) the-community הַמְּדַעִית (ha-mada’it) the-scientific בְּאֹפֶן (be-ofen) by-manner מְהִיר (mahir) quick
32.23b Ha-meida (ha-meida) the-information hofats (hofats) was-distributed be-kerev (be-kerev) among ha-kehilah (ha-kehilah) the-community ha-mada’it (ha-mada’it) the-scientific be-ofen (be-ofen) by-manner mahir (mahir) quick
32.24a הַנֹּשֵׂא (ha-nose) the-topic נִבְדַּק (nivdak) was-examined עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַפָּקוּלְטָה (ha-fakulta) the-faculty לְמַדְּעֵי (le-mad’ei) for-sciences-of הַטֶּבַע (ha-teva) the-nature
32.24b Ha-nose (ha-nose) the-topic nivdak (nivdak) was-examined al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-fakulta (ha-fakulta) the-faculty le-mad’ei (le-mad’ei) for-sciences-of ha-teva (ha-teva) the-nature
32.25a הַכִּנּוּס (ha-kinus) the-conference יִתְקַיֵּם (yitkaiyem) will-take-place בְּאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה (be-universita) at-university וְ (ve-) and יִשֻׁדַּר (yishudar) will-be-broadcast בְּשִׁדּוּר (be-shidur) by-broadcast חַי (ḥai) live בָּאִינְטֶרְנֶט (ba-internet) on-the-internet
32.25b Ha-kinus (ha-kinus) the-conference yitkaiyem (yitkaiyem) will-take-place be-universita (be-universita) at-university ve- (ve-) and yishudar (yishudar) will-be-broadcast be-shidur (be-shidur) by-broadcast ḥai (ḥai) live ba-internet (ba-internet) on-the-internet
32.26a הַמֵּחָקָר (ha-meḥkar) the-research בּוֹצַּע (botsa) was-carried-out עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by סְטוּדֶנְטִים (studentim) students לְתֹאָר (le-to’ar) for-degree שֵׁנִי (sheni) second וְ (ve-) and שְׁלִישִׁי (sh’lishi) third
32.26b Ha-meḥkar (ha-meḥkar) the-research botsa (botsa) was-carried-out al-yedei (al-yedei) by studentim (studentim) students le-to’ar (le-to’ar) for-degree sheni (sheni) second ve- (ve-) and sh’lishi (sh’lishi) third
32.27a הַתּוֹצָאוֹת (ha-totsa’ot) the-results יוּצְּגוּ (yuts’gu) will-be-presented בְּכִנּוּס (be-kinus) at-conference הַבָּא (ha-ba) the-next עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by רֹאשׁ (rosh) head-of הַצֶּוֶת (ha-tsevet) the-team
32.27b Ha-totsa’ot (ha-totsa’ot) the-results yuts’gu (yuts’gu) will-be-presented be-kinus (be-kinus) at-conference ha-ba (ha-ba) the-next al-yedei (al-yedei) by rosh (rosh) head-of ha-tsevet (ha-tsevet) the-team
32.28a הַמִּשְׂרָד (ha-misrad) the-ministry הוֹדִיעַ (hodia) announced כִּי (ki) that הַתַּקְצִיב (ha-taktsiv) the-budget יּוּגְדַּל (yugdal) will-be-increased עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by שְׁלוֹשִׁים (sh’loshim) thirty אָחוּז (aḥuz) percent
32.28b Ha-misrad (ha-misrad) the-ministry hodia (hodia) announced ki (ki) that ha-taktsiv (ha-taktsiv) the-budget yugdal (yugdal) will-be-increased al-yedei (al-yedei) by sh’loshim (sh’loshim) thirty aḥuz (aḥuz) percent
32.29a הַמַּאֲמָרִים (ha-ma’amarim) the-articles נִכְתְּבוּ (nikht’vu) were-written עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by מְדַעְנִים (mada’nim) scientists מֵ (me-) from עֶשְׂרִים (esrim) twenty מְדִינוֹת (medinot) countries שׁוֹנוֹת (shonot) different
32.29b Ha-ma’amarim (ha-ma’amarim) the-articles nikht’vu (nikht’vu) were-written al-yedei (al-yedei) by mada’nim (mada’nim) scientists me- (me-) from esrim (esrim) twenty medinot (medinot) countries shonot (shonot) different
32.30a הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט (ha-proyekt) the-project יִסָּיֵם (yisayem) will-end בְּעוֹד (be-od) in-another שָׁנָה (shanah) year וְ (ve-) and הַמַּסְקָנוֹת (ha-maskanot) the-conclusions יוּפָצוּ (yufatsu) will-be-distributed עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei) by הַמַּעֲרֶכֶת (ha-ma’arekhet) the-editorial-board בְּבִתֵּי (be-vatei) in-houses-of דְּפוּס (d’fus) print בִּינְלְאוּמִיִּים (binle’umiyim) international
32.30b Ha-proyekt (ha-proyekt) the-project yisayem (yisayem) will-end be-od (be-od) in-another shanah (shanah) year ve- (ve-) and ha-maskanot (ha-maskanot) the-conclusions yufatsu (yufatsu) will-be-distributed al-yedei (al-yedei) by ha-ma’arekhet (ha-ma’arekhet) the-editorial-board be-vatei (be-vatei) in-houses-of d’fus (d’fus) print binle’umiyim (binle’umiyim) international
Part B: Natural Sentences
32.16 הַמַּחֲקָר הֶחָדָשׁ פּוּרְסַם עַל־יְדֵי הָאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הָעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם Ha-maḥkar he-khadash pursam al-yedei ha-universita ha-ivrit bi-yerushalayim “The new research was published by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem”
32.17 הַמְּדַעְנִים גִּלּוּ אֶת הַתּוֹצָאוֹת בְּעֶזְרַת טֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה מְתַקְדֶּמֶת Ha-mada’nim gilu et ha-totsa’ot be-ezrat tekhnologyah metakdemet “The scientists discovered the results by means of advanced technology”
32.18 הַנָּתוּנִים נֶאֶסְפוּ עַל־יְדֵי צֶוֶת בֵּינְלְאֻמִּי שֶׁל חוֹקְרִים Ha-natunim ne’esfu al-yedei tsevet beinle’umi shel ḥok’rim “The data were collected by an international team of researchers”
32.19 הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט מְמֻמָּן עַל־יְדֵי הַמִּשְׂרָד לְמַדָּע וְטֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה Ha-proyekt memuman al-yedei ha-misrad le-mada ve-tekhnologyah “The project is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology”
32.20 הַדּוֹ״ח מַרְאֶה כִּי הַשִּׁנּוּיִים בַּאַקְלִים נִגְרְמוּ עַל־יְדֵי פְּעִילוּת אֱנוֹשִׁית Ha-do’aḥ mar’eh ki ha-shinuyim ba-aklim nig’r’mu al-yedei pe’ilut enoshit “The report shows that the climate changes were caused by human activity”
32.21 הַמִּסְמָכִים הוּעֲבְרוּ לַוַעֲדָה בְּדֹאַר רָשׁוּם Ha-mismakhim hu’av’ru la-va’adah be-do’ar rashum “The documents were transferred to the committee by registered mail”
32.22 הַמֵּמְצָאִים אוּשְׁרוּ עַל־יְדֵי מֻמְחִים נוֹסָפִים בַּתְּחוּם Ha-memtsa’im ush’ru al-yedei mumḥim nosafim ba-teḥum “The findings were confirmed by additional experts in the field”
32.23 הַמֵּידָע הוֹפָץ בִּקְרַב הַקְּהִילָה הַמְּדַעִית בְּאֹפֶן מְהִיר Ha-meida hofats be-kerev ha-kehilah ha-mada’it be-ofen mahir “The information was distributed among the scientific community quickly”
32.24 הַנֹּשֵׂא נִבְדַּק עַל־יְדֵי הַפָּקוּלְטָה לְמַדְּעֵי הַטֶּבַע Ha-nose nivdak al-yedei ha-fakulta le-mad’ei ha-teva “The topic was examined by the Faculty of Natural Sciences”
32.25 הַכִּנּוּס יִתְקַיֵּם בְּאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה וְיִשֻׁדַּר בְּשִׁדּוּר חַי בָּאִינְטֶרְנֶט Ha-kinus yitkaiyem be-universita ve-yishudar be-shidur ḥai ba-internet “The conference will take place at the university and will be broadcast live on the internet”
32.26 הַמֵּחָקָר בּוֹצַּע עַל־יְדֵי סְטוּדֶנְטִים לְתֹאָר שֵׁנִי וְשְׁלִישִׁי Ha-meḥkar botsa al-yedei studentim le-to’ar sheni ve-sh’lishi “The research was carried out by graduate and doctoral students”
32.27 הַתּוֹצָאוֹת יוּצְּגוּ בְּכִנּוּס הַבָּא עַל־יְדֵי רֹאשׁ הַצֶּוֶת Ha-totsa’ot yuts’gu be-kinus ha-ba al-yedei rosh ha-tsevet “The results will be presented at the next conference by the team leader”
32.28 הַמִּשְׂרָד הוֹדִיעַ כִּי הַתַּקְצִיב יּוּגְדַּל עַל־יְדֵי שְׁלוֹשִׁים אָחוּז Ha-misrad hodia ki ha-taktsiv yugdal al-yedei sh’loshim aḥuz “The ministry announced that the budget will be increased by thirty percent”
32.29 הַמַּאֲמָרִים נִכְתְּבוּ עַל־יְדֵי מְדַעְנִים מֵעֶשְׂרִים מְדִינוֹת שׁוֹנוֹת Ha-ma’amarim nikht’vu al-yedei mada’nim me-esrim medinot shonot “The articles were written by scientists from twenty different countries”
32.30 הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט יִסָּיֵם בְּעוֹד שָׁנָה וְהַמַּסְקָנוֹת יוּפָצוּ עַל־יְדֵי הַמַּעֲרֶכֶת בְּבִתֵּי דְּפוּס בִּינְלְאוּמִיִּים Ha-proyekt yisayem be-od shanah ve-ha-maskanot yufatsu al-yedei ha-ma’arekhet be-vatei d’fus binle’umiyim “The project will end in another year and the conclusions will be distributed by the editorial board in international publishing houses”
Part C: Target Language Only
32.16 הַמַּחֲקָר הֶחָדָשׁ פּוּרְסַם עַל־יְדֵי הָאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הָעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם Ha-maḥkar he-khadash pursam al-yedei ha-universita ha-ivrit bi-yerushalayim
32.17 הַמְּדַעְנִים גִּלּוּ אֶת הַתּוֹצָאוֹת בְּעֶזְרַת טֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה מְתַקְדֶּמֶת Ha-mada’nim gilu et ha-totsa’ot be-ezrat tekhnologyah metakdemet
32.18 הַנָּתוּנִים נֶאֶסְפוּ עַל־יְדֵי צֶוֶת בֵּינְלְאֻמִּי שֶׁל חוֹקְרִים Ha-natunim ne’esfu al-yedei tsevet beinle’umi shel ḥok’rim
32.19 הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט מְמֻמָּן עַל־יְדֵי הַמִּשְׂרָד לְמַדָּע וְטֶכְנוֹלוֹגְיָה Ha-proyekt memuman al-yedei ha-misrad le-mada ve-tekhnologyah
32.20 הַדּוֹ״ח מַרְאֶה כִּי הַשִּׁנּוּיִים בַּאַקְלִים נִגְרְמוּ עַל־יְדֵי פְּעִילוּת אֱנוֹשִׁית Ha-do’aḥ mar’eh ki ha-shinuyim ba-aklim nig’r’mu al-yedei pe’ilut enoshit
32.21 הַמִּסְמָכִים הוּעֲבְרוּ לַוַעֲדָה בְּדֹאַר רָשׁוּם Ha-mismakhim hu’av’ru la-va’adah be-do’ar rashum
32.22 הַמֵּמְצָאִים אוּשְׁרוּ עַל־יְדֵי מֻמְחִים נוֹסָפִים בַּתְּחוּם Ha-memtsa’im ush’ru al-yedei mumḥim nosafim ba-teḥum
32.23 הַמֵּידָע הוֹפָץ בִּקְרַב הַקְּהִילָה הַמְּדַעִית בְּאֹפֶן מְהִיר Ha-meida hofats be-kerev ha-kehilah ha-mada’it be-ofen mahir
32.24 הַנֹּשֵׂא נִבְדַּק עַל־יְדֵי הַפָּקוּלְטָה לְמַדְּעֵי הַטֶּבַע Ha-nose nivdak al-yedei ha-fakulta le-mad’ei ha-teva
32.25 הַכִּנּוּס יִתְקַיֵּם בְּאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה וְיִשֻׁדַּר בְּשִׁדּוּר חַי בָּאִינְטֶרְנֶט Ha-kinus yitkaiyem be-universita ve-yishudar be-shidur ḥai ba-internet
32.26 הַמֵּחָקָר בּוֹצַּע עַל־יְדֵי סְטוּדֶנְטִים לְתֹאָר שֵׁנִי וְשְׁלִישִׁי Ha-meḥkar botsa al-yedei studentim le-to’ar sheni ve-sh’lishi
32.27 הַתּוֹצָאוֹת יוּצְּגוּ בְּכִנּוּס הַבָּא עַל־יְדֵי רֹאשׁ הַצֶּוֶת Ha-totsa’ot yuts’gu be-kinus ha-ba al-yedei rosh ha-tsevet
32.28 הַמִּשְׂרָד הוֹדִיעַ כִּי הַתַּקְצִיב יּוּגְדַּל עַל־יְדֵי שְׁלוֹשִׁים אָחוּז Ha-misrad hodia ki ha-taktsiv yugdal al-yedei sh’loshim aḥuz
32.29 הַמַּאֲמָרִים נִכְתְּבוּ עַל־יְדֵי מְדַעְנִים מֵעֶשְׂרִים מְדִינוֹת שׁוֹנוֹת Ha-ma’amarim nikht’vu al-yedei mada’nim me-esrim medinot shonot
32.30 הַפְּרוֹיֶקְט יִסָּיֵם בְּעוֹד שָׁנָה וְהַמַּסְקָנוֹת יוּפָצוּ עַל־יְדֵי הַמַּעֲרֶכֶת בְּבִתֵּי דְּפוּס בִּינְלְאוּמִיִּים Ha-proyekt yisayem be-od shanah ve-ha-maskanot yufatsu al-yedei ha-ma’arekhet be-vatei d’fus binle’umiyim
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The news report genre demonstrates the formal, written register where עַל־יְדֵי appears most frequently in Modern Hebrew. Notice several key patterns: -
Passive Voice Dominance: News reports heavily use passive constructions (נִפְעַל and פֻּעַל binyanim) with עַל־יְדֵי to maintain objectivity and focus on events rather than agents. -
Academic/Formal Vocabulary: Words like מַחֲקָר (research), נָתוּנִים (data), מֵּמְצָאִים (findings) are typical of formal discourse. -
Multiple Agency Markers: Notice the variation: -
עַל־יְדֵי for human agents and organizations -
בְּעֶזְרַת (be-ezrat) “by means of/with the help of” for tools and methods -
בְּאֹפֶן (be-ofen) “by manner/in a manner” for describing how something is done -
Future Passive: Examples 32.27 and 32.30 show future passive constructions (יוּצְּגוּ, יוּפָצוּ) with עַל־יְדֵי, common in announcements and plans. -
Percentage Expression: Example 32.28 shows a unique usage - “increased by thirty percent” uses עַל־יְדֵי to express the degree of change, though בְּ would also be acceptable here. -
Compound Constructions: Notice phrases like בְּבִתֵּי דְּפוּס (in publishing houses) where בְּ attaches to the construct form בָּתֵּי.
This genre section illustrates why עַל־יְדֵי remains vital in Modern Hebrew despite being somewhat formal - it’s the standard marker of agency in academic, journalistic, and official discourse.
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עַל־יְדֵי (al-yedei): -
IPA: [al jeˈdej] -
Stress on final syllable: ye-DEI -
The hyphen (מקף, makaf) indicates this is a compound unit -
Common reduction in fast speech: [alˈjdej]
בְּ (be-) prefix: -
IPA: [be], [bi], or [ba] depending on context -
Always unstressed (it’s a proclitic) -
Pronunciation changes: -
בְּטֶלֶפוֹן [beteˈlfon] -
בִּמְכוֹנִית [bimχoˈnit] (dagesh in מ) -
בַּבַּיִת [baˈbajit] (with definite article)
לְיַד (le-yad): -
IPA: [leˈjad] -
Stress on final syllable: le-YAD -
Very common in spoken Hebrew
אֵצֶל (etsel): -
IPA: [ˈetsel] -
Stress on first syllable: E-tsel -
The צ (tsade) is pronounced [ts], not [s]
Common Pronunciation Challenges for English Speakers: -
The צ (tsade) sound - practice [ts] as in “cats” -
The כ (kaf) without dagesh is [χ] (like German “Bach”), not [k] -
The ע (ayin) - a pharyngeal sound, but often reduced in Modern Hebrew -
Stress patterns - Hebrew stress is generally on the final syllable unless marked otherwise
Audio Reference Suggestions: -
Forvo.com for individual word pronunciations by native speakers -
Pealim.com for verb conjugations with audio -
HebrewPod101 for contextual examples -
Reverso Context for authentic usage examples with audio
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This lesson is part of the Latinum Institute Modern Language Course series, offering systematic, frequency-based vocabulary instruction for autodidact learners. Since 2006, the Latinum Institute has been creating comprehensive language learning materials based on interlinear glossing methodology, making languages accessible to independent learners worldwide.
Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Methodology: This course uses the proven interlinear glossing technique, where each word in the target language is individually glossed with its English equivalent. This dual-line format (native script + romanization with glosses) allows learners to: -
Build direct comprehension of the Hebrew script -
Understand pronunciation through systematic romanization -
Grasp grammatical structures through word-by-word analysis -
Progress at their own pace without classroom instruction
Why This Approach Works: The interlinear format accelerates acquisition by providing complete transparency - you see exactly how Hebrew constructs meaning, word by word. Unlike traditional methods that may delay script introduction or rely heavily on translation, this method immerses you immediately in authentic Hebrew while providing the scaffolding you need to comprehend it.
CSV-Based Progression: Each lesson is built around a single high-frequency word from a carefully curated 1000-word vocabulary list. Lesson 32 focuses on “by” (עַל־יְדֵי / בְּ), teaching you not just vocabulary but the cultural and grammatical nuances of how Hebrew makes distinctions that English leaves ambiguous.
Student Reviews: The Latinum Institute maintains a 5-star rating on Trustpilot - see reviews at https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk
For Autodidacts: This course is specifically designed for self-directed learners. No instructor necessary - the interlinear format provides everything you need to understand and internalize Hebrew patterns naturally, through exposure and analysis rather than memorization.
Hebrew Script Learning: Modern Hebrew uses the Hebrew alphabet (אָלֶף־בֵּית), an abjad where vowels are typically indicated by optional diacritics (nikkud). This course includes full transliteration to help you learn both the script and proper pronunciation simultaneously. As you progress, you’ll find yourself relying less on the romanization and more on direct script recognition.
Cultural Authenticity: Each lesson includes authentic literary citations and culturally appropriate examples, ensuring you’re learning real Hebrew as spoken and written by native speakers, not artificial “textbook” language.
Next Steps: Continue with Lesson 33 to build on this foundation systematically, or review previous lessons to reinforce your understanding. Remember: consistent, daily exposure to the interlinear format is more effective than sporadic intensive study.
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