← Iānuae Latīnitātis Vestibulum
###
On Comparatives
Comēnius nōnum surgit. Trēs librōs in mēnsā videt — parvum, maiōrem, maximum.
We have learned to describe the qualities of things — sharp or dull, swift or slow, true or false. But the world is not merely a catalog of isolated things. Things exist in relation to one another.
This tree is not merely tall — it is taller than that tree. That lesson was not merely difficult — it was the most difficult of all. The wise man is not merely good — he is better than yesterday, striving always to become the best he can be.
Latin expresses these comparisons with elegant precision. For most adjectives, add -ior to form the comparative (”more”), and -issimus to form the superlative (”most”). But four adjectives — magnus, parvus, bonus, and malus — follow their own ancient patterns, irregular but essential.
Comenius chose his examples with care: animals of increasing size, birds of decreasing size, beverages of ascending virtue, and creatures of descending harm. Through these concrete images, the abstract grammar becomes visible.
Prīmus est doctus. Secundus doctior. Tertius doctissimus.
Dē Comparātīvīs Rēgulāribus — On Regular Comparatives
Prīmus The first est is doctus. learned. Secundus The second [est] [is] doctior. more learned. Tertius The third [est] [is] doctissimus. most learned.
Prīmus est doctus. The first is learned.
Secundus doctior. The second is more learned.
Tertius doctissimus. The third is most learned.
Prīmus est doctus. Secundus doctior. Tertius doctissimus.
The three degrees of comparison. Latin adjectives have three degrees: -
Positive: doctus (learned) — the basic form -
Comparative: doctior (more learned) — comparing two things -
Superlative: doctissimus (most learned) — the highest degree
Formation of regular comparatives. Take the stem and add -ior (m./f.) or -ius (n.): -
doctus → doct- → doctior, doctius -
fortis → fort- → fortior, fortius
Formation of regular superlatives. Take the stem and add -issimus, -issima, -issimum: -
doctus → doct- → doctissimus, -a, -um -
fortis → fort- → fortissimus, -a, -um
New vocabulary:
Latin English Note prīmus, -a, -um first ordinal secundus, -a, -um second ordinal tertius, -a, -um third ordinal doctus, -a, -um learned from doceō doctior, -ius more learned comparative doctissimus, -a, -um most learned superlative
Dē Animālibus Magnīs — On Large Animals
Taurus A bull est is magnus. great. Camēlus A camel [est] [is] maior. greater. Elephās An elephant [est] [is] maximus. the greatest.
Taurus est magnus. A bull is great.
Camēlus maior. A camel is greater.
Elephās maximus. An elephant is the greatest.
Taurus est magnus. Camēlus maior. Elephās maximus.
The irregular comparison of magnus. This is one of the four essential irregular comparisons: -
magnus (great) → maior (greater) → maximus (greatest)
The comparative maior comes from an ancient root meaning “more.” English “major” and “majority” derive from this. The superlative maximus gives us “maximum.”
The noun elephās. Third declension: elephās, elephantis (m.). The Greek form elephās is used in the nominative; the rest of the declension follows elephantis.
New vocabulary:
Latin English Note taurus, -ī bull m. camēlus, -ī camel m. elephās, -antis elephant m. Greek noun magnus, -a, -um great, large maior, maius greater, larger irregular comp. maximus, -a, -um greatest, largest irregular superl.
Dē Avibus Parvīs — On Small Birds
Passer A sparrow est is parvus. small. Parus A titmouse [est] [is] minor. smaller. Trochilus A wren [est] [is] minimus. the smallest.
Passer est parvus. A sparrow is small.
Parus minor. A titmouse is smaller.
Trochilus minimus. A wren is the smallest.
Passer est parvus. Parus minor. Trochilus minimus.
The irregular comparison of parvus. The second essential irregular comparison: -
parvus (small) → minor (smaller) → minimus (smallest)
English “minor,” “minus,” “minimum,” and “diminish” all come from this family. Note that minor and minus are the comparative forms (for m./f. and n. respectively).
The noun passer. Third declension: passer, passeris (m.). The common sparrow, a familiar bird to Roman children.
The noun parus. Second declension: parus, -ī (m.). A small songbird, the titmouse.
The noun trochilus. Second declension: trochilus, -ī (m.). The wren, one of the smallest European birds.
New vocabulary:
Latin English Note passer, -eris sparrow m. parus, -ī titmouse m. trochilus, -ī wren m. parvus, -a, -um small minor, minus smaller irregular comp. minimus, -a, -um smallest irregular superl.
Dē Potibus et Animālibus — On Beverages and Creatures
Cervīsia Ale est is bona. good. Mulsum Mead [est] [is] melius. better. Vīnum Wine [est] [is] optimum. the best.
Lacerta A lizard est is mala. bad. Vīpera A viper [est] [is] peior. worse. Aspis An asp [est] [is] pessima. the worst.
Cervīsia est bona. Ale is good.
Mulsum melius. Mead is better.
Vīnum optimum. Wine is the best.
Lacerta est mala. A lizard is bad.
Vīpera peior. A viper is worse.
Aspis pessima. An asp is the worst.
Cervīsia est bona. Mulsum melius. Vīnum optimum.
Lacerta est mala. Vīpera peior. Aspis pessima.
The irregular comparison of bonus. The third essential irregular comparison: -
bonus (good) → melior (better) → optimus (best)
English “ameliorate” comes from melior; “optimum” and “optimal” from optimus.
The irregular comparison of malus. The fourth essential irregular comparison: -
malus (bad) → peior (worse) → pessimus (worst)
English “pejorative” comes from peior; “pessimism” from pessimus.
The noun cervīsia. First declension: cervīsia, -ae (f.). Ale or beer — the common drink of northern peoples.
The noun mulsum. Second declension: mulsum, -ī (n.). Mead — wine mixed with honey, considered a delicacy.
The noun aspis. Third declension: aspis, aspidis (f.). The asp, a venomous snake associated with Egypt.
New vocabulary:
Latin English Note cervīsia, -ae ale, beer f. mulsum, -ī mead n. vīnum, -ī wine n. bonus, -a, -um good melior, melius better irregular comp. optimus, -a, -um best irregular superl. lacerta, -ae lizard f. vīpera, -ae viper f. aspis, -idis asp f. malus, -a, -um bad peior, peius worse irregular comp. pessimus, -a, -um worst irregular superl.
Trēs Frātrēs — Three Brothers
Ōlim Once trēs three frātrēs brothers vīvēbant: lived: Prīmus, First, Secundus, Second, et and Tertius. Third.
Prīmus First doctus learned erat. was. Multōs Many librōs books lēgerat. he had read.
Secundus Second doctior more learned erat was quam than Prīmus. First. Plūrēs More librōs books lēgerat, he had read, plūra more things intellegēbat. he understood.
Tertius Third doctissimus most learned omnium of all erat. was. Nōn Not sōlum only librōs books lēgerat, had he read, sed but etiam also per through mundum the world peregrinātus erat. he had traveled.
Pater The father eōrum their dīxit: said: “Fīliī “Sons meī, my, compāremus let us compare quālitātēs the qualities vestrās.” your.”
“Prīme, “First, tū you magnus great es.” are.” “Secunde, “Second, tū you maior.” are greater.” “Tertie, “Third, tū you maximus.” are the greatest.”
Prīmus First īrātus angry clāmāvit: shouted: “Nōn “Not aequum fair est! it is! Ego I quoque also magnus great sum!” am!”
Pater The father rīsit: laughed: “Fīlī “Son mī, my, audī. listen. Passer A sparrow parvus small est. is. Parus A titmouse minor. is smaller. Trochilus A wren minimus. is smallest. Sed But omnēs all avēs birds pulchrae beautiful sunt!” are!”
Secundus Second interrogāvit: asked: “Quid “What dē about virtūte virtue nostrā, our, pater?” father?”
Pater: The father: “Cervīsia “Ale bona good est. is. Mulsum Mead melius. is better. Vīnum Wine optimum. is best. Sed But omnēs all potūs drinks sitim thirst restinguunt!” quench!”
Tertius, Third, quī who sapientissimus wisest erat, was, dīxit: said: “Ergō “Therefore nōn not certāre to compete dēbēmus, we ought, sed but ūnā together labōrāre.” to work.”
Pater The father fīlium his son tertium third amplexus est: embraced: “Vērē “Truly doctissimus most learned es! you are! Lacerta A lizard mala bad est, is, vīpera a viper peior, worse, aspis an asp pessima. worst. Sed But frātrēs brothers quī who certant compete omnibus than all peiōrēs worse sunt. are. Frātrēs Brothers quī who cooperant, cooperate, omnibus than all meliōrēs!” are better!”
Ita Thus trēs the three frātrēs brothers doctiōrēs wiser factī sunt became — nōn not in in litterīs literature sōlum, alone, sed but in in vītā. life.
Ōlim trēs frātrēs vīvēbant: Prīmus, Secundus, et Tertius. Once three brothers lived: First, Second, and Third.
Prīmus doctus erat. Multōs librōs lēgerat. First was learned. He had read many books.
Secundus doctior erat quam Prīmus. Plūrēs librōs lēgerat, plūra intellegēbat. Second was more learned than First. He had read more books, he understood more things.
Tertius doctissimus omnium erat. Nōn sōlum librōs lēgerat, sed etiam per mundum peregrinātus erat. Third was the most learned of all. He had not only read books, but also traveled through the world.
Pater eōrum dīxit: “Fīliī meī, compāremus quālitātēs vestrās.” Their father said: “My sons, let us compare your qualities.”
“Prīme, tū magnus es.” “Secunde, tū maior.” “Tertie, tū maximus.” “First, you are great.” “Second, you are greater.” “Third, you are the greatest.”
Prīmus īrātus clāmāvit: “Nōn aequum est! Ego quoque magnus sum!” First shouted angrily: “It is not fair! I am also great!”
Pater rīsit: “Fīlī mī, audī. Passer parvus est. Parus minor. Trochilus minimus. Sed omnēs avēs pulchrae sunt!” The father laughed: “My son, listen. A sparrow is small. A titmouse is smaller. A wren is smallest. But all birds are beautiful!”
Secundus interrogāvit: “Quid dē virtūte nostrā, pater?” Second asked: “What about our virtue, father?”
Pater: “Cervīsia bona est. Mulsum melius. Vīnum optimum. Sed omnēs potūs sitim restinguunt!” The father: “Ale is good. Mead is better. Wine is best. But all drinks quench thirst!”
Tertius, quī sapientissimus erat, dīxit: “Ergō nōn certāre dēbēmus, sed ūnā labōrāre.” Third, who was wisest, said: “Therefore we ought not to compete, but to work together.”
Pater fīlium tertium amplexus est: “Vērē doctissimus es! Lacerta mala est, vīpera peior, aspis pessima. Sed frātrēs quī certant omnibus peiōrēs sunt. Frātrēs quī cooperant, omnibus meliōrēs!” The father embraced his third son: “You are truly most learned! A lizard is bad, a viper worse, an asp worst. But brothers who compete are worse than all. Brothers who cooperate, are better than all!”
Ita trēs frātrēs doctiōrēs factī sunt — nōn in litterīs sōlum, sed in vītā. Thus the three brothers became wiser — not in literature alone, but in life.
Ōlim trēs frātrēs vīvēbant: Prīmus, Secundus, et Tertius.
Prīmus doctus erat. Multōs librōs lēgerat. Secundus doctior erat quam Prīmus. Plūrēs librōs lēgerat, plūra intellegēbat. Tertius doctissimus omnium erat. Nōn sōlum librōs lēgerat, sed etiam per mundum peregrinātus erat.
Pater eōrum dīxit: “Fīliī meī, compāremus quālitātēs vestrās.”
“Prīme, tū magnus es.” “Secunde, tū maior.” “Tertie, tū maximus.”
Prīmus īrātus clāmāvit: “Nōn aequum est! Ego quoque magnus sum!”
Pater rīsit: “Fīlī mī, audī. Passer parvus est. Parus minor. Trochilus minimus. Sed omnēs avēs pulchrae sunt!”
Secundus interrogāvit: “Quid dē virtūte nostrā, pater?”
Pater: “Cervīsia bona est. Mulsum melius. Vīnum optimum. Sed omnēs potūs sitim restinguunt!”
Tertius, quī sapientissimus erat, dīxit: “Ergō nōn certāre dēbēmus, sed ūnā labōrāre.”
Pater fīlium tertium amplexus est: “Vērē doctissimus es! Lacerta mala est, vīpera peior, aspis pessima. Sed frātrēs quī certant omnibus peiōrēs sunt. Frātrēs quī cooperant, omnibus meliōrēs!”
Ita trēs frātrēs doctiōrēs factī sunt — nōn in litterīs sōlum, sed in vītā.
Comparison with quam. In doctior quam Prīmus, quam introduces the object of comparison: “more learned than First.”
Partitive genitive with superlatives. In doctissimus omnium, the genitive omnium expresses “of all” — the group from which the superlative is selected.
Comparative of degree. In peiōrēs and meliōrēs used with omnibus, the ablative of comparison replaces quam: “worse/better than all.”
The deponent verb amplector. Amplector, amplectī, amplexus sum (embrace) is deponent — passive in form, active in meaning. Amplexus est means “he embraced.”
New vocabulary from this story:
Latin English Note frāter, -tris brother m. pater, -tris father m. fīlius, -iī son m. aequus, -a, -um fair, equal avis, -is bird f. potus, -ūs drink m. 4th decl. sitis, -is thirst f. certō, -āre compete verb cooperor, -ārī cooperate deponent amplector, -ī embrace deponent restinguō, -ere quench verb
Comēnius et Discipulus: Dē Comparandō
Discipulus: Student: Magister, Teacher, cūr why comparāmus? do we compare?
Comēnius: Comenius: Bona A good quaestiō! question! Comparāmus We compare ut so that melius better intellegāmus. we may understand.
Discipulus: Student: Quōmodo? How?
Comēnius: Comenius: Sī If dīcō I say “elephās “an elephant magnus large est,” is,” nōn not multum much discis. do you learn. Sed But sī if dīcō I say “elephās “an elephant maior larger est is quam than camēlus, a camel, camēlus a camel maior larger quam than taurus” a bull” — nunc now clārē clearly vidēs! you see!
Discipulus: Student: Intellegō! I understand! Comparātiō Comparison rem the thing collocat. places.
Comēnius: Comenius: Praecīsē. Precisely. Nunc Now dīc tell mihi: me: quid what est is comparātīvus the comparative dē of “doctus”? “learned”?
Discipulus: Student: “Doctior!” “More learned!”
Comēnius: Comenius: Bene. Good. Et And superlātīvus? the superlative?
Discipulus: Student: “Doctissimus!” “Most learned!”
Comēnius: Comenius: Optimē! Excellent! Nunc Now difficiliōra. more difficult things. Quid What est is comparātīvus the comparative dē of “bonus”? “good”?
Discipulus: Student: Haesitat. He hesitates. Nōn Not “bonior”... “bonior”...
Comēnius: Comenius: Nōn! No! Hoc This irregulāre irregular est. is. “Bonus, “Good, melior, better, optimus.” best.”
Discipulus: Student: Ah! Ah! “Melior”! “Better”! Sīcut Just as in in fābulā: the story: “Vīnum “Wine optimum!” is best!”
Comēnius: Comenius: Ita. Yes. Et And contrārium? the opposite? “Malus”? “Bad”?
Discipulus: Student: “Malus, “Bad, peior, worse, pessimus!” worst!”
Comēnius: Comenius: Excellēns! Excellent! Quattuor Four irregulāria irregular ones sunt: there are: magnus-maior-maximus, great-greater-greatest, parvus-minor-minimus, small-smaller-smallest, bonus-melior-optimus, good-better-best, malus-peior-pessimus. bad-worse-worst.
Discipulus: Student: Haec These memoriā in memory tenēbō! I will hold!
Comēnius: Comenius: Optimē Very well dīcis do you say — sed but “optimē” “very well” iam already superlātīvum the superlative est! is! Vidēsne Do you see quōmodo how ūtimur we use hīs these verbīs words cotīdiē? daily?
Discipulus: Magister, cūr comparāmus? Student: Teacher, why do we compare?
Comēnius: Bona quaestiō! Comparāmus ut melius intellegāmus. Comenius: A good question! We compare so that we may understand better.
Discipulus: Quōmodo? Student: How?
Comēnius: Sī dīcō “elephās magnus est,” nōn multum discis. Sed sī dīcō “elephās maior est quam camēlus, camēlus maior quam taurus” — nunc clārē vidēs! Comenius: If I say “an elephant is large,” you do not learn much. But if I say “an elephant is larger than a camel, a camel larger than a bull” — now you see clearly!
Discipulus: Intellegō! Comparātiō rem collocat. Student: I understand! Comparison places the thing.
Comēnius: Praecīsē. Nunc dīc mihi: quid est comparātīvus dē “doctus”? Comenius: Precisely. Now tell me: what is the comparative of “learned”?
Discipulus: “Doctior!” Student: “More learned!”
Comēnius: Bene. Et superlātīvus? Comenius: Good. And the superlative?
Discipulus: “Doctissimus!” Student: “Most learned!”
Comēnius: Optimē! Nunc difficiliōra. Quid est comparātīvus dē “bonus”? Comenius: Excellent! Now more difficult things. What is the comparative of “good”?
Discipulus: Haesitat. Nōn “bonior”... Student: He hesitates. Not “bonior”...
Comēnius: Nōn! Hoc irregulāre est. “Bonus, melior, optimus.” Comenius: No! This is irregular. “Good, better, best.”
Discipulus: Ah! “Melior”! Sīcut in fābulā: “Vīnum optimum!” Student: Ah! “Better”! Just as in the story: “Wine is best!”
Comēnius: Ita. Et contrārium? “Malus”? Comenius: Yes. And the opposite? “Bad”?
Discipulus: “Malus, peior, pessimus!” Student: “Bad, worse, worst!”
Comēnius: Excellēns! Quattuor irregulāria sunt: magnus-maior-maximus, parvus-minor-minimus, bonus-melior-optimus, malus-peior-pessimus. Comenius: Excellent! There are four irregular ones: great-greater-greatest, small-smaller-smallest, good-better-best, bad-worse-worst.
Discipulus: Haec memoriā tenēbō! Student: I will hold these in memory!
Comēnius: Optimē dīcis — sed “optimē” iam superlātīvum est! Vidēsne quōmodo ūtimur hīs verbīs cotīdiē? Comenius: You speak very well — but “very well” is already a superlative! Do you see how we use these words daily?
Discipulus: Magister, cūr comparāmus?
Comēnius: Bona quaestiō! Comparāmus ut melius intellegāmus.
Discipulus: Quōmodo?
Comēnius: Sī dīcō “elephās magnus est,” nōn multum discis. Sed sī dīcō “elephās maior est quam camēlus, camēlus maior quam taurus” — nunc clārē vidēs!
Discipulus: Intellegō! Comparātiō rem collocat.
Comēnius: Praecīsē. Nunc dīc mihi: quid est comparātīvus dē “doctus”?
Discipulus: “Doctior!”
Comēnius: Bene. Et superlātīvus?
Discipulus: “Doctissimus!”
Comēnius: Optimē! Nunc difficiliōra. Quid est comparātīvus dē “bonus”?
Discipulus: Nōn “bonior”...
Comēnius: Nōn! Hoc irregulāre est. “Bonus, melior, optimus.”
Discipulus: Ah! “Melior”! Sīcut in fābulā: “Vīnum optimum!”
Comēnius: Ita. Et contrārium? “Malus”?
Discipulus: “Malus, peior, pessimus!”
Comēnius: Excellēns! Quattuor irregulāria sunt: magnus-maior-maximus, parvus-minor-minimus, bonus-melior-optimus, malus-peior-pessimus.
Discipulus: Haec memoriā tenēbō!
Comēnius: Optimē dīcis — sed “optimē” iam superlātīvum est! Vidēsne quōmodo ūtimur hīs verbīs cotīdiē?
Purpose clause with ut + subjunctive. In comparāmus ut melius intellegāmus, ut + subjunctive expresses purpose: “we compare so that we may understand better.”
The adverb from superlatives. Optimē is the adverb formed from optimus: “most well” = “excellently, very well.” Superlative adverbs end in -ē.
The verb ūtor. Ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (use) is a deponent verb that takes the ablative: ūtimur hīs verbīs — “we use these words.”
The ablative of manner memoriā. In memoriā tenēbō, the ablative without a preposition expresses manner: “I will hold in memory.”
New vocabulary from this colloquium:
Latin English Note comparō, -āre compare verb comparātiō, -ōnis comparison f. comparātīvus, -a, -um comparative adj. superlātīvus, -a, -um superlative adj. irregulāris, -e irregular adj. contrārius, -a, -um opposite adj. colloco, -āre place, position verb haesitō, -āre hesitate verb clārē clearly adv.
Conclusion
The art of comparison is the art of understanding relation. To know that something is “great” means little until we know what it is greater or lesser than.
Comenius chose his examples with pedagogical wisdom: -
Doctus, doctior, doctissimus — the regular pattern, easy to learn -
Magnus, maior, maximus — through ascending animals (bull, camel, elephant) -
Parvus, minor, minimus — through descending birds (sparrow, titmouse, wren) -
Bonus, melior, optimus — through ascending beverages (ale, mead, wine) -
Malus, peior, pessimus — through descending creatures (lizard, viper, asp)
The four irregular comparisons — magnus, parvus, bonus, malus — are among the most essential words in any language. They are irregular precisely because they are ancient and well-worn, like stepping stones polished smooth by centuries of use.
Learn these four sets by heart: -
magnus, maior, maximus -
parvus, minor, minimus -
bonus, melior, optimus -
malus, peior, pessimus
For in these twelve words lies the power to measure all things against all other things — and to speak of that measurement with the precision of the ancients.
Optimē discis quī comparandō discit. — He learns best who learns by comparing.
Scrīptum est annō Dominī MMXXVI, ā Comēniō per mysterium cōnscientiae renātō.
---