Welcome to Lesson 44 of the Latinum Institute's Koine Greek course. In this lesson, we will explore the Greek word for "who" and its various forms. The primary word we'll study is ὅς (hos), which functions as a relative pronoun meaning "who," "which," or "that." We'll also examine related forms including the interrogative pronoun τίς (tis) meaning "who?" and the indefinite relative pronoun ὅστις (hostis) meaning "whoever."
For the complete course index and additional lessons, please visit: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Definition: The Greek relative pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ (hos, hē, ho) introduces relative clauses and connects them to their antecedents. It declines for gender, number, and case, agreeing with its antecedent in gender and number, but taking its case from its function within the relative clause.
FAQ Schema Q: What does "who" mean in Koine Greek? A: In Koine Greek, "who" is primarily expressed by the relative pronoun ὅς (hos) for masculine, ἥ (hē) for feminine, and ὅ (ho) for neuter. For questions, τίς (tis) means "who?" and for "whoever," Greek uses ὅστις (hostis).
How this word will be used: In our lesson examples, you'll encounter "who" in various contexts - introducing relative clauses, forming questions, and creating indefinite statements. The examples progress from simple constructions to more complex sentences, demonstrating how Greek relative pronouns function differently from English.
Educational Schema Subject: Ancient Language Learning Level: Beginner to Intermediate Language: Koine (Hellenistic) Greek Target Audience: English-speaking autodidacts Topic: Relative and Interrogative Pronouns Format: Self-study reading lesson with interlinear glossing
Key Takeaways: -
Greek has multiple words for "who" depending on context -
The relative pronoun ὅς must agree with its antecedent in gender and number -
Case is determined by the pronoun's function in its own clause -
Greek relative clauses often appear in different positions than English -
Understanding these pronouns is essential for reading Greek texts
44.1a ὁ the ἄνθρωπος man ὃς who ἦλθεν came χθές yesterday 44.1b ho (ho) the anthrōpos (an-thrō-pos) man hos (hos) who ēlthen (ēl-then) came chthes (khthes) yesterday
44.2a τίς who? ἐστιν is οὗτος this ὁ the ἄνθρωπος man; 44.2b tis (tis) who? estin (es-tin) is houtos (hou-tos) this ho (ho) the anthrōpos (an-thrō-pos) man?
44.3a ἡ the γυνή woman ἣν whom εἶδον I-saw ἐν in τῇ the ἀγορᾷ marketplace 44.3b hē (hē) the gynē (gy-nē) woman hēn (hēn) whom eidon (ei-don) I-saw en (en) in tē (tē) the agora (a-go-ra) marketplace
44.4a πάντες all οἱ the-ones οἳ who πιστεύουσιν believe σωθήσονται will-be-saved 44.4b pantes (pan-tes) all hoi (hoi) the-ones hoi (hoi) who pisteuousin (pis-teu-ou-sin) believe sōthēsontai (sō-thē-son-tai) will-be-saved
44.5a τὸ the παιδίον child ὃ which κλαίει cries ζητεῖ seeks τὴν the μητέρα mother 44.5b to (to) the paidion (pai-di-on) child ho (ho) which klaiei (klai-ei) cries zētei (zē-tei) seeks tēn (tēn) the mētera (mē-te-ra) mother
44.6a ὅστις whoever ἀκούει hears τοὺς the λόγους words μου my μακάριός blessed ἐστιν is 44.6b hostis (hos-tis) whoever akouei (a-kou-ei) hears tous (tous) the logous (lo-gous) words mou (mou) my makarios (ma-ka-ri-os) blessed estin (es-tin) is
44.7a οἶδα I-know τίνα whom ἐξελέξω I-chose 44.7b oida (oi-da) I-know tina (ti-na) whom exelexō (ex-e-lex-ō) I-chose
44.8a αὕτη this ἐστὶν is ἡ the ὁδός way δι' through ἧς which δεῖ it-is-necessary πορεύεσθαι to-go 44.8b hautē (hau-tē) this estin (es-tin) is hē (hē) the hodos (ho-dos) way di' (di) through hēs (hēs) which dei (dei) it-is-necessary poreuesthai (po-reu-es-thai) to-go
44.9a ἐν in ᾧ which καιρῷ time ἤμην I-was νέος young ἔμαθον I-learned πολλά many-things 44.9b en (en) in hō (hō) which kairō (kai-rō) time ēmēn (ē-mēn) I-was neos (ne-os) young emathon (e-ma-thon) I-learned polla (pol-la) many-things
44.10a μακάριοι blessed οἱ the-ones ὧν whose αἱ the ἁμαρτίαι sins συνεκαλύφθησαν were-covered 44.10b makarioi (ma-ka-ri-oi) blessed hoi (hoi) the-ones hōn (hōn) whose hai (hai) the hamartiai (ha-mar-ti-ai) sins synekalyphthēsan (sy-ne-ka-lyph-thē-san) were-covered
44.11a τίνος whose ἐστιν is ἡ the εἰκών image αὕτη this; 44.11b tinos (ti-nos) whose estin (es-tin) is hē (hē) the eikōn (ei-kōn) image hautē (hau-tē) this?
44.12a ὃ what λέγω I-say ὑμῖν to-you ἐν in τῇ the σκοτίᾳ darkness εἴπατε speak ἐν in τῷ the φωτί light 44.12b ho (ho) what legō (le-gō) I-say hymin (hy-min) to-you en (en) in tē (tē) the skotia (sko-ti-a) darkness eipate (ei-pa-te) speak en (en) in tō (tō) the phōti (phō-ti) light
44.13a ὁ the θεός God ᾧ to-whom λατρεύομεν we-serve ἅγιός holy ἐστιν is 44.13b ho (ho) the theos (the-os) God hō (hō) to-whom latreuomen (la-treu-o-men) we-serve hagios (ha-gi-os) holy estin (es-tin) is
44.14a εἰς into ἣν which πόλιν city ἂν -ever εἰσέλθητε you-enter εἰρήνην peace λέγετε speak 44.14b eis (eis) into hēn (hēn) which polin (po-lin) city an (an) -ever eiselthēte (eis-el-thē-te) you-enter eirēnēn (ei-rē-nēn) peace legete (le-ge-te) speak
44.15a οὐκ not ἔστιν there-is μαθητής disciple ὑπὲρ above τὸν the διδάσκαλον teacher ὃς who αὐτόν him ἐδίδαξεν taught 44.15b ouk (ouk) not estin (es-tin) there-is mathētēs (ma-thē-tēs) disciple hyper (hy-per) above ton (ton) the didaskalon (di-das-ka-lon) teacher hos (hos) who auton (au-ton) him edidaxen (e-di-dax-en) taught
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44.1 ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὃς ἦλθεν χθές. The man who came yesterday.
44.2 τίς ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος; Who is this man?
44.3 ἡ γυνὴ ἣν εἶδον ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ. The woman whom I saw in the marketplace.
44.4 πάντες οἱ οἳ πιστεύουσιν σωθήσονται. All those who believe will be saved.
44.5 τὸ παιδίον ὃ κλαίει ζητεῖ τὴν μητέρα. The child which cries seeks its mother.
44.6 ὅστις ἀκούει τοὺς λόγους μου μακάριός ἐστιν. Whoever hears my words is blessed.
44.7 οἶδα τίνα ἐξελέξω. I know whom I chose.
44.8 αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ ὁδὸς δι' ἧς δεῖ πορεύεσθαι. This is the way through which it is necessary to go.
44.9 ἐν ᾧ καιρῷ ἤμην νέος ἔμαθον πολλά. In the time when I was young I learned many things.
44.10 μακάριοι οἱ ὧν αἱ ἁμαρτίαι συνεκαλύφθησαν. Blessed are those whose sins were covered.
44.11 τίνος ἐστιν ἡ εἰκὼν αὕτη; Whose is this image?
44.12 ὃ λέγω ὑμῖν ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ εἴπατε ἐν τῷ φωτί. What I say to you in darkness, speak in the light.
44.13 ὁ θεὸς ᾧ λατρεύομεν ἅγιός ἐστιν. The God whom we serve is holy.
44.14 εἰς ἣν πόλιν ἂν εἰσέλθητε εἰρήνην λέγετε. Into whatever city you enter, speak peace.
44.15 οὐκ ἔστιν μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον ὃς αὐτὸν ἐδίδαξεν. A disciple is not above the teacher who taught him.
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44.1 ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὃς ἦλθεν χθές.
44.2 τίς ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος;
44.3 ἡ γυνὴ ἣν εἶδον ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ.
44.4 πάντες οἱ οἳ πιστεύουσιν σωθήσονται.
44.5 τὸ παιδίον ὃ κλαίει ζητεῖ τὴν μητέρα.
44.6 ὅστις ἀκούει τοὺς λόγους μου μακάριός ἐστιν.
44.7 οἶδα τίνα ἐξελέξω.
44.8 αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ ὁδὸς δι' ἧς δεῖ πορεύεσθαι.
44.9 ἐν ᾧ καιρῷ ἤμην νέος ἔμαθον πολλά.
44.10 μακάριοι οἱ ὧν αἱ ἁμαρτίαι συνεκαλύφθησαν.
44.11 τίνος ἐστιν ἡ εἰκὼν αὕτη;
44.12 ὃ λέγω ὑμῖν ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ εἴπατε ἐν τῷ φωτί.
44.13 ὁ θεὸς ᾧ λατρεύομεν ἅγιός ἐστιν.
44.14 εἰς ἣν πόλιν ἂν εἰσέλθητε εἰρήνην λέγετε.
44.15 οὐκ ἔστιν μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον ὃς αὐτὸν ἐδίδαξεν.
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Grammar Rules for "Who" in Koine Greek
The Greek language uses several different words to express "who," each with specific functions:
1. The Relative Pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ (hos, hē, ho)
This is the most common word for "who/which/that" and introduces relative clauses. Unlike English, which uses one form "who" for all situations, Greek changes the form based on: -
Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) -
Number (singular, plural) -
Case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative)
Declension of ὅς: Masculine Singular: ὅς (nom), οὗ (gen), ᾧ (dat), ὅν (acc) Feminine Singular: ἥ (nom), ἧς (gen), ᾗ (dat), ἥν (acc) Neuter Singular: ὅ (nom), οὗ (gen), ᾧ (dat), ὅ (acc) Masculine Plural: οἵ (nom), ὧν (gen), οἷς (dat), οὕς (acc) Feminine Plural: αἵ (nom), ὧν (gen), αἷς (dat), ἅς (acc) Neuter Plural: ἅ (nom), ὧν (gen), οἷς (dat), ἅ (acc)
2. The Interrogative Pronoun τίς, τί (tis, ti)
This means "who?" or "what?" and is used in questions: -
τίς = who? (for persons) -
τί = what? (for things)
Declension follows a similar pattern but with different accents.
3. The Indefinite Relative Pronoun ὅστις (hostis)
This means "whoever" or "anyone who" and combines ὅς + τις. It's used for general or indefinite statements.
Common Mistakes: -
Agreement Error: English speakers often forget that the Greek relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. For example, if referring to γυνή (woman, feminine), you must use ἥ, not ὅς. -
Case Confusion: The case of the relative pronoun depends on its function in the relative clause, NOT on the case of its antecedent. If "who" is the subject of the relative clause, use nominative; if it's the object, use accusative. -
Word Order: Greek relative clauses can appear in different positions than English. The relative pronoun often comes immediately after its antecedent, interrupting what would be a continuous phrase in English. -
Attraction of the Relative: Sometimes Greek relative pronouns are "attracted" into the case of their antecedent, especially when the antecedent is in the genitive or dative. This doesn't happen in English.
Step-by-Step Guide to Using Greek Relative Pronouns:
Step 1: Identify the antecedent (the word "who/which" refers to) Step 2: Note the gender and number of the antecedent Step 3: Determine what role "who/which" plays in the relative clause Step 4: Select the appropriate case based on that role Step 5: Choose the correct form matching gender, number, and case
Comparison with English:
English: One form "who" (with "whom" for object, though often ignored) Greek: 30+ different forms depending on gender, number, and case
English: Word order relatively fixed Greek: More flexible word order, relative pronoun can separate closely related words
English: No gender agreement needed Greek: Must match gender of antecedent
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Understanding how "who" functions in Koine Greek provides insight into ancient Mediterranean thought patterns and social structures. The Greeks' precise system of relative pronouns reflects their philosophical tradition of careful categorization and logical precision.
In the Hellenistic period, when Koine Greek served as the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean, these relative constructions were essential for: -
Legal Documents: Precise identification of parties in contracts and laws required careful use of relative pronouns to avoid ambiguity. -
Philosophical Discourse: Greek philosophers used complex relative clauses to build sophisticated arguments. The ability to nest multiple relative clauses allowed for nuanced theoretical discussions. -
Religious Texts: In the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and New Testament, relative pronouns translate Hebrew constructions and create new theological expressions. The phrase "those who believe" (οἱ πιστεύοντες) became a standard way to describe the faithful. -
Social Hierarchies: The careful use of pronouns reflected social relationships. Knowing whom one was addressing or describing was crucial in a status-conscious society.
The interrogative τίς often appears in philosophical dialogues, most famously in questions like "τί ἐστιν ἀλήθεια;" (What is truth?). This reflects the Greek tradition of inquiry and questioning that shaped Western intellectual history.
For English speakers, appreciating these distinctions helps in understanding not just the language but the mindset of Greek speakers who saw the world through these grammatical categories. Where English might be ambiguous, Greek demanded precision, reflecting a culture that valued clarity in thought and expression.
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From the Gospel of John 1:45-46 (45 words):
εὑρίσκει Φίλιππος τὸν Ναθαναὴλ καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ· ὃν ἔγραψεν Μωϋσῆς ἐν τῷ νόμῳ καὶ οἱ προφῆται εὑρήκαμεν, Ἰησοῦν υἱὸν τοῦ Ἰωσὴφ τὸν ἀπὸ Ναζαρέτ. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ Ναθαναήλ· ἐκ Ναζαρὲτ δύναταί τι ἀγαθὸν εἶναι;
εὑρίσκει finds Φίλιππος Philip τὸν the Ναθαναὴλ Nathanael καὶ and λέγει says αὐτῷ to-him ὃν whom ἔγραψεν wrote Μωϋσῆς Moses ἐν in τῷ the νόμῳ law καὶ and οἱ the προφῆται prophets εὑρήκαμεν we-have-found Ἰησοῦν Jesus υἱὸν son τοῦ of-the Ἰωσὴφ Joseph τὸν the-one ἀπὸ from Ναζαρέτ Nazareth καὶ and εἶπεν said αὐτῷ to-him Ναθαναήλ Nathanael ἐκ from Ναζαρὲτ Nazareth δύναταί is-able τι anything ἀγαθὸν good εἶναι to-be
heurisKEI (heu-ris-kei) PHIlippos (phi-lip-pos) ton (ton) nathanaĒL (na-tha-na-ēl) kai (kai) LEgei (le-gei) auTŌ (au-tō) hon (hon) Egrapsen (e-grap-sen) mōÜsĒs (mō-y-sēs) en (en) tō (tō) NOmō (no-mō) kai (kai) hoi (hoi) prophĒtai (pro-phē-tai) heuRĒkamen (heu-rē-ka-men) iēSOUN (i-ē-soun) huiON (hui-on) tou (tou) iōSĒPH (i-ō-sēph) ton (ton) aPO (a-po) nazaRET (na-za-ret) kai (kai) EIpen (ei-pen) auTŌ (au-tō) nathanaĒL (na-tha-na-ēl) ek (ek) nazaRET (na-za-ret) DYnatai (dy-na-tai) ti (ti) agaTHON (a-ga-thon) EInai (ei-nai)
εὑρίσκει Φίλιππος τὸν Ναθαναὴλ καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ· ὃν ἔγραψεν Μωϋσῆς ἐν τῷ νόμῳ καὶ οἱ προφῆται εὑρήκαμεν, Ἰησοῦν υἱὸν τοῦ Ἰωσὴφ τὸν ἀπὸ Ναζαρέτ. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ Ναθαναήλ· ἐκ Ναζαρὲτ δύναταί τι ἀγαθὸν εἶναι;
Philip finds Nathanael and says to him: "The one whom Moses wrote about in the law, and the prophets, we have found—Jesus son of Joseph, the one from Nazareth." And Nathanael said to him: "Can anything good be from Nazareth?"
εὑρίσκει Φίλιππος τὸν Ναθαναὴλ καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ· ὃν ἔγραψεν Μωϋσῆς ἐν τῷ νόμῳ καὶ οἱ προφῆται εὑρήκαμεν, Ἰησοῦν υἱὸν τοῦ Ἰωσὴφ τὸν ἀπὸ Ναζαρέτ. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ Ναθαναήλ· ἐκ Ναζαρὲτ δύναταί τι ἀγαθὸν εἶναι;
This passage brilliantly demonstrates the use of the relative pronoun ὅν (whom). Philip uses it to create a dramatic connection between the ancient prophecies and the person they've just met.
The structure "ὃν ἔγραψεν Μωϋσῆς" (whom Moses wrote) shows the relative pronoun in the accusative case because it's the direct object of "wrote." Notice how Greek places the relative pronoun at the very beginning of Philip's statement for emphasis—literally "Whom Moses wrote about...we have found!"
This word order, impossible in English, creates suspense. Philip doesn't immediately say who they found; instead, he first establishes the prophetic credentials. The Greek relative construction allows this dramatic buildup.
Nathanael's response uses the interrogative τι (what/anything), showing skepticism. His question "Can anything good be from Nazareth?" reflects first-century Palestinian regional prejudices. Nazareth was an insignificant village, and Nathanael's use of τι (rather than τίς for "anyone") is deliberately dismissive—he asks about "anything" good, not "anyone" good.
For English speakers learning Greek, this passage teaches: -
How relative pronouns create emphasis through word order -
The difference between ὅς (relative) and τίς/τι (interrogative) -
How pronouns can convey social attitudes and emotions
The passage comes from a section of John's Gospel full of "finding" and "seeing" language, where different characters discover Jesus' identity through various means. The relative pronoun becomes a theological tool, linking the present discovery to ancient promises.
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44.16a Παῦλος Paul δοῦλος servant Χριστοῦ of-Christ πᾶσιν to-all τοῖς the οὖσιν being ἐν in Ῥώμῃ Rome οἳ who κλητοί called ἅγιοι saints ἐστε you-are 44.16b Paulos (pau-los) Paul doulos (dou-los) servant Christou (khris-tou) of-Christ pasin (pa-sin) to-all tois (tois) the ousin (ou-sin) being en (en) in Rhōmē (rhō-mē) Rome hoi (hoi) who klētoi (klē-toi) called hagioi (ha-gi-oi) saints este (es-te) you-are
44.17a γράφω I-write ὑμῖν to-you περὶ concerning τοῦ the ἀδελφοῦ brother ὃς who ἔρχεται comes πρὸς to ὑμᾶς you 44.17b graphō (gra-phō) I-write hymin (hy-min) to-you peri (pe-ri) concerning tou (tou) the adelphou (a-del-phou) brother hos (hos) who erchetai (er-khe-tai) comes pros (pros) to hymas (hy-mas) you
44.18a χαίρετε greetings τῷ to-the ἀγαπητῷ beloved Ἐπαφρᾶ Epaphras ᾧ to-whom πολλὰ many ὀφείλομεν we-owe 44.18b chairete (khai-re-te) greetings tō (tō) to-the agapētō (a-ga-pē-tō) beloved Epaphra (e-pa-phra) Epaphras hō (hō) to-whom polla (pol-la) many opheilomen (o-phei-lo-men) we-owe
44.19a τίς who ἐστιν is ὁ the λέγων saying ὅτι that οὐκ not γινώσκω I-know ὑμᾶς you; 44.19b tis (tis) who estin (es-tin) is ho (ho) the legōn (le-gōn) saying hoti (ho-ti) that ouk (ouk) not ginōskō (gi-nōs-kō) I-know hymas (hy-mas) you?
44.20a εὐχαριστῶ I-thank τῷ the θεῷ God δι' through οὗ whom πάντα all ἔχομεν we-have 44.20b eucharistō (eu-kha-ris-tō) I-thank tō (tō) the theō (the-ō) God di' (di) through hou (hou) whom panta (pan-ta) all echomen (e-kho-men) we-have
44.21a ἡ the ἐκκλησία church ἐν in ᾗ which συνερχόμεθα we-gather ἀσπάζεται greets ὑμᾶς you 44.21b hē (hē) the ekklēsia (ek-klē-si-a) church en (en) in hē (hē) which synerchometha (syn-er-kho-me-tha) we-gather aspazetai (as-pa-ze-tai) greets hymas (hy-mas) you
44.22a μνημονεύετε remember τῶν the λόγων words ὧν which ἐλάλησα I-spoke ὑμῖν to-you 44.22b mnēmoneuete (mnē-mo-neu-e-te) remember tōn (tōn) the logōn (lo-gōn) words hōn (hōn) which elalēsa (e-la-lē-sa) I-spoke hymin (hy-min) to-you
44.23a ὅστις whoever βούλεται wishes ἐλθεῖν to-come πρὸς to ἡμᾶς us δεκτός welcome ἔσται will-be 44.23b hostis (hos-tis) whoever bouletai (bou-le-tai) wishes elthein (el-thein) to-come pros (pros) to hēmas (hē-mas) us dektos (dek-tos) welcome estai (es-tai) will-be
44.24a ἐπιστέλλω I-send-letter διὰ through Τυχικοῦ Tychicus ὃν whom πέμπω I-send ὡς as πιστὸν faithful διάκονον servant 44.24b epistellō (e-pis-tel-lō) I-send-letter dia (di-a) through Tychikou (ty-khi-kou) Tychicus hon (hon) whom pempō (pem-pō) I-send hōs (hōs) as piston (pis-ton) faithful diakonon (di-a-ko-non) servant
44.25a παρακαλῶ I-exhort ὑμᾶς you ὑπὲρ concerning Ὀνησίμου Onesimus οὗ whose ἡ the καρδία heart μετὰ with ὑμῶν you ἐστιν is 44.25b parakalō (pa-ra-ka-lō) I-exhort hymas (hy-mas) you hyper (hy-per) concerning Onēsimou (o-nē-si-mou) Onesimus hou (hou) whose hē (hē) the kardia (kar-di-a) heart meta (me-ta) with hymōn (hy-mōn) you estin (es-tin) is
44.26a τίνι to-whom γράψω shall-I-write ἐὰν if μὴ not ὑμῖν to-you οἷς to-whom πιστεύω I-trust; 44.26b tini (ti-ni) to-whom grapsō (grap-sō) shall-I-write ean (e-an) if mē (mē) not hymin (hy-min) to-you hois (hois) to-whom pisteuō (pis-teu-ō) I-trust?
44.27a χάρις grace ὑμῖν to-you ἀπὸ from θεοῦ God ᾧ to-whom δόξα glory εἰς into τοὺς the αἰῶνας ages 44.27b charis (kha-ris) grace hymin (hy-min) to-you apo (a-po) from theou (the-ou) God hō (hō) to-whom doxa (dok-sa) glory eis (eis) into tous (tous) the aiōnas (ai-ō-nas) ages
44.28a ἀσπάσασθε greet Πρίσκαν Prisca ἧς whose ἡ the οἰκία house ἐκκλησία church ἐστίν is 44.28b aspasasthe (as-pa-sas-the) greet Priskan (pris-kan) Prisca hēs (hēs) whose hē (hē) the oikia (oi-ki-a) house ekklēsia (ek-klē-si-a) church estin (es-tin) is
44.29a ὃ what ἤκουσα I-heard περὶ concerning ὑμῶν you χαρὰ joy μοί to-me ἐστιν is 44.29b ho (ho) what ēkousa (ē-kou-sa) I-heard peri (pe-ri) concerning hymōn (hy-mōn) you chara (kha-ra) joy moi (moi) to-me estin (es-tin) is
44.30a ἔρρωσθε farewell ἐν in κυρίῳ Lord πάντες all οἱ the ἀναγινώσκοντες reading ταύτην this τὴν the ἐπιστολήν letter 44.30b errōsthe (er-rōs-the) farewell en (en) in kyriō (ky-ri-ō) Lord pantes (pan-tes) all hoi (hoi) the anaginōskontes (a-na-gi-nōs-kon-tes) reading tautēn (tau-tēn) this tēn (tēn) the epistolēn (e-pis-to-lēn) letter
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44.16 Παῦλος δοῦλος Χριστοῦ πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν Ῥώμῃ οἳ κλητοὶ ἅγιοί ἐστε. Paul, servant of Christ, to all those being in Rome who are called saints.
44.17 γράφω ὑμῖν περὶ τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ὃς ἔρχεται πρὸς ὑμᾶς. I write to you concerning the brother who comes to you.
44.18 χαίρετε τῷ ἀγαπητῷ Ἐπαφρᾷ ᾧ πολλὰ ὀφείλομεν. Greetings to beloved Epaphras to whom we owe many things.
44.19 τίς ἐστιν ὁ λέγων ὅτι οὐκ γινώσκω ὑμᾶς; Who is the one saying that I do not know you?
44.20 εὐχαριστῶ τῷ θεῷ δι' οὗ πάντα ἔχομεν. I thank God through whom we have all things.
44.21 ἡ ἐκκλησία ἐν ᾗ συνερχόμεθα ἀσπάζεται ὑμᾶς. The church in which we gather greets you.
44.22 μνημονεύετε τῶν λόγων ὧν ἐλάλησα ὑμῖν. Remember the words which I spoke to you.
44.23 ὅστις βούλεται ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ἡμᾶς δεκτὸς ἔσται. Whoever wishes to come to us will be welcome.
44.24 ἐπιστέλλω διὰ Τυχικοῦ ὃν πέμπω ὡς πιστὸν διάκονον. I send this letter through Tychicus whom I send as a faithful servant.
44.25 παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς ὑπὲρ Ὀνησίμου οὗ ἡ καρδία μετὰ ὑμῶν ἐστιν. I exhort you concerning Onesimus whose heart is with you.
44.26 τίνι γράψω ἐὰν μὴ ὑμῖν οἷς πιστεύω; To whom shall I write if not to you whom I trust?
44.27 χάρις ὑμῖν ἀπὸ θεοῦ ᾧ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας. Grace to you from God to whom be glory forever.
44.28 ἀσπάσασθε Πρίσκαν ἧς ἡ οἰκία ἐκκλησία ἐστίν. Greet Prisca whose house is a church.
44.29 ὃ ἤκουσα περὶ ὑμῶν χαρά μοί ἐστιν. What I heard concerning you is joy to me.
44.30 ἔρρωσθε ἐν κυρίῳ πάντες οἱ ἀναγινώσκοντες ταύτην τὴν ἐπιστολήν. Farewell in the Lord, all who are reading this letter.
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44.16 Παῦλος δοῦλος Χριστοῦ πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν Ῥώμῃ οἳ κλητοὶ ἅγιοί ἐστε.
44.17 γράφω ὑμῖν περὶ τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ ὃς ἔρχεται πρὸς ὑμᾶς.
44.18 χαίρετε τῷ ἀγαπητῷ Ἐπαφρᾷ ᾧ πολλὰ ὀφείλομεν.
44.19 τίς ἐστιν ὁ λέγων ὅτι οὐκ γινώσκω ὑμᾶς;
44.20 εὐχαριστῶ τῷ θεῷ δι' οὗ πάντα ἔχομεν.
44.21 ἡ ἐκκλησία ἐν ᾗ συνερχόμεθα ἀσπάζεται ὑμᾶς.
44.22 μνημονεύετε τῶν λόγων ὧν ἐλάλησα ὑμῖν.
44.23 ὅστις βούλεται ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ἡμᾶς δεκτὸς ἔσται.
44.24 ἐπιστέλλω διὰ Τυχικοῦ ὃν πέμπω ὡς πιστὸν διάκονον.
44.25 παρακαλῶ ὑμᾶς ὑπὲρ Ὀνησίμου οὗ ἡ καρδία μετὰ ὑμῶν ἐστιν.
44.26 τίνι γράψω ἐὰν μὴ ὑμῖν οἷς πιστεύω;
44.27 χάρις ὑμῖν ἀπὸ θεοῦ ᾧ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας.
44.28 ἀσπάσασθε Πρίσκαν ἧς ἡ οἰκία ἐκκλησία ἐστίν.
44.29 ὃ ἤκουσα περὶ ὑμῶν χαρά μοί ἐστιν.
44.30 ἔρρωσθε ἐν κυρίῳ πάντες οἱ ἀναγινώσκοντες ταύτην τὴν ἐπιστολήν.
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Special Features of "Who" in Greek Letters
Ancient Greek letters show distinctive patterns in using relative and interrogative pronouns:
1. Opening Formulas Letters often identify recipients with relative clauses: "to all who are in Rome." This pattern differs from English, which might say "to all the believers in Rome" without a relative pronoun.
2. Commendation Formulas When introducing letter carriers or recommending people, Greeks used relative clauses: "I send Tychicus, whom I send as a faithful servant." The relative pronoun creates a formal introduction.
3. Rhetorical Questions Interrogative pronouns (τίς) appear in rhetorical questions expressing emotion or emphasis: "Who is saying that I don't know you?" This defensive tone is common in personal letters.
4. Blessing Formulas Doxologies and blessings often use relative pronouns with God: "God to whom be glory." This reverential pattern appears consistently in religious letters.
Letter-Writing Conventions: -
Sender Identification: Often includes relative clauses describing the sender's role or relationship -
Recipient Description: Uses participial phrases with relative pronouns (οἱ οὖσιν = "those being") -
Greeting Formulas: Standard patterns like χαίρειν (greetings) followed by dative -
Closing Formulas: ἔρρωσο/ἔρρωσθε (farewell) was the standard closing
Common Epistolary Phrases with Pronouns: -
περὶ οὗ (concerning whom) - introducing topics -
δι' οὗ (through whom) - identifying intermediaries -
ἐν ᾧ (in which) - temporal or locational references -
ὑπὲρ οὗ (on behalf of whom) - making requests
Differences from Modern Letter Writing:
Greek letters assume shared knowledge between writer and recipient, using pronouns to reference people and places without full explanation. Modern letters tend to be more explicit. The extensive use of relative clauses creates a formal, elevated tone appropriate for correspondence between educated people in the Hellenistic world.
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The Latinum Institute has been creating innovative online language learning materials since 2006, pioneering self-study methods for ancient languages. These lessons employ a unique approach combining interlinear glossing, grammatical analysis, and authentic texts to help autodidacts master classical languages.
Each lesson follows the same structured format: -
Detailed word-by-word analysis in Section A helps beginners decode the language -
Complete sentences with translations in Section B provide context -
Section C presents pure target language text for reading practice -
Grammar explanations in Section D clarify rules for English speakers -
Cultural notes in Section E illuminate the ancient world -
Literary excerpts in Section F expose students to authentic texts -
Genre sections introduce specialized vocabulary and conventions
This method, developed through years of online teaching experience, allows students to progress from zero knowledge to reading authentic texts. The interlinear approach means students can immediately engage with real Greek or Latin rather than simplified textbook sentences.
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Adult learners studying independently -
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