← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ²⁹ ◊ᵉˣ
Welcome to Lesson 29 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the preposition ex (also written ē), “out of, from.” It is one of the most frequent words in all of Latin (the Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 26th), and in the law it is almost everywhere: ex parte, ex officio, ex post facto, ex gratia, ex aequo et bono, ex contractu, ex delicto, ex tunc and ex nunc.
What does ex mean in legal Latin?
Ex means “out of” or “from,” and it always takes the ablative case: ex urbe, “out of the city”; ex contractū, “from the contract.” At its root it describes movement outward from inside something. The law uses it above all for the source of a thing: the source of an obligation (ex contractū, “arising from a contract”), the source of authority (ex officiō, “by virtue of office”), the standard of judgment (ex aequō et bonō, “according to what is fair and good”), and the point in time from which something takes effect (ex nunc, “from now”; ex tunc, “from then”).
How does Latin differ from English here?
English “from” covers ground that Latin splits between three prepositions, all taking the ablative. Ex means “out of” (from inside). Ab (Lesson 20) means “away from” (from beside, or from a person acting as agent). Dē means “down from, concerning.” A witness comes ex urbe, out of the city he lives in. A letter comes ab amīcō, from a friend. A lawyer speaks dē testāmentō, about the will. Latin also uses ex where English says “according to” or “in accordance with”: ex lēge, “in accordance with the law”; ex sententiā, “as one wished.”
Ex or ē?
There is one word with two forms. Ex can stand before any sound. Ē can stand only before a consonant, never before a vowel or h. So ē carcere or ex carcere, but only ex officiō and ex hīs. In the legal phrases in use today, ex is the usual form (ex parte, ex post facto), and ē survives in a few fixed expressions such as ē contrāriō, “from the opposite,” and ē plūribus ūnum.
Etymology: ex comes from Proto-Indo-European *eǵʰs, “out,” and is related to Greek ἐξ / ἐκ (ex, ek). It is also the prefix ex- in hundreds of Latin compounds, and many of them passed into legal English: exceptiō (exception, a defence plea), exsecūtiō (execution), exemplum (an exemplified copy), extrāneus (an outsider, an external heir), ēdictum (edict), ēvictiō (eviction). Before f the prefix becomes ef- (efferre, “to carry out”). Before many consonants it becomes ē- (ēdūcere, “to lead out”; ēvocāre, “to summon out”).
Key Takeaways
⚖ Ex / ē means “out of, from” and always governs the ablative case
⚖ Ex may stand before any sound; ē only before consonants. Ex officiō, never ✗ ē officiō
⚖ In law, ex marks the source of an obligation, a right or an authority: ex contractū, ex dēlictō, ex officiō
⚖ Ex also means “according to”: ex lēge, ex aequō et bonō, ex ūsū
⚖ Ex also has a partitive use, “one of”: ūnus ex hērēdibus, “one of the heirs”
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ex /eks/: one syllable, with the short e of English “bet.” The x always counts as two consonants, /ks/, so ex before a vowel sounds as if it were written “eks-”: ex officiō /ek.sofˈfi.ki.oː/ in connected speech.
ē /eː/: the same vowel held long, like the vowel of French été. Macrons mark it in teaching texts. In legal documents and court reports it is printed as plain e (e contrario).
Stress: ex and ē are unstressed words. They lean on the noun that follows, and the stress falls on the noun: ex conTRACtū, ē CARcere.
In compounds, x + consonant is a heavy cluster: exscrībitō /eksˈskriː.bi.toː/, “you shall copy out.” Say both the /ks/ and the /s/.
Legal English pronunciations vary (“ex PAR-tee,” “ex oh-FISH-ee-oh”). This course gives the restored classical pronunciation, in which c is always /k/ and v is /w/.
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29.1a Ex by-virtue-of officiō office agit he-acts
29.1b Ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL officiō /ofˈfi.ki.oː/ office.ABL.N.SG agit /ˈa.ɡit/ act.3SG.PRES
29.2a Testis the-witness ex out-of urbe the-city venit comes
29.2b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL urbe /ˈur.be/ city.ABL.F.SG venit /ˈwe.nit/ come.3SG.PRES
29.3a Ē out-of carcere prison exiit he-went-out
29.3b Ē /eː/ out-of.PREP+ABL carcere /ˈkar.ke.re/ prison.ABL.M.SG exiit /ˈek.si.it/ go-out.3SG.PERF
29.4a Ex from contractū the-contract obligātur he-is-bound
29.4b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL contractū /konˈtrak.tuː/ contract.ABL.M.SG obligātur /ob.liˈɡaː.tur/ bind.3SG.PRES.PASS
29.5a Ē from tabulīs the-records recitāvit he-read-aloud
29.5b Ē /eː/ from.PREP+ABL tabulīs /ˈta.bu.liːs/ record.ABL.F.PL recitāvit /re.kiˈtaː.wit/ read-aloud.3SG.PERF
29.6a Notārius the-notary exemplum a-copy ex out-of librō the-book īnstrūmentōrum of-instruments dēscrīpsit copied
29.6b Notārius /noˈtaː.ri.us/ notary.NOM.M.SG exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL librō /ˈli.broː/ book.ABL.M.SG īnstrūmentōrum /iːn.struː.menˈtoː.rum/ instrument.GEN.N.PL dēscrīpsit /deːˈskriːp.sit/ copy.3SG.PERF
29.7a Iūdex the-judge ex according-to aequō the-fair et and bonō the-good dēcrēvit decided
29.7b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG ex /eks/ according-to.PREP+ABL aequō /ˈae̯.kʷoː/ fair.ABL.N.SG et /et/ and.CONJ bonō /ˈbo.noː/ good.ABL.N.SG dēcrēvit /deːˈkreː.wit/ decide.3SG.PERF
29.8a Reus the-defendant ex out-of vinculīs chains causam case dīxit pleaded
29.8b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL vinculīs /ˈwin.ku.liːs/ chain.ABL.N.PL causam /ˈkau̯.sam/ case.ACC.F.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
29.9a Ex from eā that rē matter nūlla no āctiō action nāscitur is-born
29.9b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL eā /ˈe.aː/ that.ABL.F.SG rē /reː/ matter.ABL.F.SG nūlla /ˈnuːl.la/ no.NOM.F.SG āctiō /ˈaːk.ti.oː/ action.NOM.F.SG nāscitur /ˈnaːs.ki.tur/ be-born.3SG.PRES.DEP
29.10a Hērēs the-heir ē out-of bonīs the-goods dēfūnctī of-the-deceased lēgāta the-legacies solvit paid
29.10b Hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG ē /eː/ out-of.PREP+ABL bonīs /ˈbo.niːs/ goods.ABL.N.PL dēfūnctī /deːˈfuːŋk.tiː/ deceased.GEN.M.SG lēgāta /leːˈɡaː.ta/ legacy.ACC.N.PL solvit /ˈsol.wit/ pay.3SG.PERF
29.11a Obligātiōnēs obligations aut either ex from contractū contract nāscuntur are-born aut or ex from maleficiō wrongdoing aut or propriō by-a-particular quōdam certain iūre law ex from variīs various causārum of-causes figūrīs forms
29.11b Obligātiōnēs /ob.li.ɡaː.tiˈoː.neːs/ obligation.NOM.F.PL aut /au̯t/ either.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL contractū /konˈtrak.tuː/ contract.ABL.M.SG nāscuntur /naːsˈkun.tur/ be-born.3PL.PRES.DEP aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL maleficiō /ma.leˈfi.ki.oː/ wrongdoing.ABL.N.SG aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ propriō /ˈpro.pri.oː/ particular.ABL.N.SG quōdam /ˈkʷoː.dam/ certain.ABL.N.SG iūre /ˈjuː.re/ law.ABL.N.SG ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL variīs /ˈwa.ri.iːs/ various.ABL.F.PL causārum /kau̯ˈsaː.rum/ cause.GEN.F.PL figūrīs /fiˈɡuː.riːs/ form.ABL.F.PL
29.12a Ex from nūdō a-bare pactō agreement inter between cīvēs citizens Rōmānōs Roman āctiō an-action nōn not nāscitur is-born
29.12b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL nūdō /ˈnuː.doː/ bare.ABL.N.SG pactō /ˈpak.toː/ agreement.ABL.N.SG inter /ˈin.ter/ between.PREP+ACC cīvēs /ˈkiː.weːs/ citizen.ACC.M.PL Rōmānōs /roːˈmaː.noːs/ Roman.ACC.M.PL āctiō /ˈaːk.ti.oː/ action.NOM.F.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV nāscitur /ˈnaːs.ki.tur/ be-born.3SG.PRES.DEP
29.13a Ex from dolō fraud malō wicked nōn not oritur arises āctiō an-action
29.13b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL dolō /ˈdo.loː/ fraud.ABL.M.SG malō /ˈma.loː/ wicked.ABL.M.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV oritur /ˈo.ri.tur/ arise.3SG.PRES.DEP āctiō /ˈaːk.ti.oː/ action.NOM.F.SG
29.14a Tribūnal the-tribunal ex by-virtue-of officiō office prōcēdēns proceeding testēs witnesses ē out-of prōvinciā the-province ēvocāvit summoned
29.14b Tribūnal /triˈbuː.nal/ tribunal.NOM.N.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL officiō /ofˈfi.ki.oː/ office.ABL.N.SG prōcēdēns /proːˈkeː.deːns/ proceed.PRES.PART.NOM.N.SG testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.ACC.M.PL ē /eː/ out-of.PREP+ABL prōvinciā /proːˈwin.ki.aː/ province.ABL.F.SG ēvocāvit /eː.woˈkaː.wit/ summon.3SG.PERF
29.15a Lēx a-law quae which nōn not ex from tunc then sed but ex from nunc now valet is-in-force facta acts praeterita past nōn not tangit touches
29.15b Lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG quae /kʷae̯/ which.NOM.F.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV ex /eks/ from.PREP tunc /tuŋk/ then.ADV sed /sed/ but.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP nunc /nuŋk/ now.ADV valet /ˈwa.let/ be-in-force.3SG.PRES facta /ˈfak.ta/ act.ACC.N.PL praeterita /prae̯ˈte.ri.ta/ past.ACC.N.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV tangit /ˈtan.ɡit/ touch.3SG.PRES
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29.1 Ex officiō agit. → “He acts by virtue of his office.”
29.2 Testis ex urbe venit. → “The witness comes from the city.”
29.3 Ē carcere exiit. → “He came out of prison.”
29.4 Ex contractū obligātur. → “He is bound by the contract.”
29.5 Ē tabulīs recitāvit. → “He read it aloud from the records.”
29.6 Notārius exemplum ex librō īnstrūmentōrum dēscrīpsit. → “The notary made a copy from the register of instruments.”
29.7 Iūdex ex aequō et bonō dēcrēvit. → “The judge decided according to what is fair and good.”
29.8 Reus ex vinculīs causam dīxit. → “The defendant pleaded his case in chains.”
29.9 Ex eā rē nūlla āctiō nāscitur. → “No action arises from that matter.”
29.10 Hērēs ē bonīs dēfūnctī lēgāta solvit. → “The heir paid the legacies out of the deceased’s estate.”
29.11 Obligātiōnēs aut ex contractū nāscuntur aut ex maleficiō aut propriō quōdam iūre ex variīs causārum figūrīs. → “Obligations arise either from contract, or from wrongdoing, or by a certain law of their own from various kinds of causes.” (Gaius, Digest 44.7.1 pr.)
29.12 Ex nūdō pactō inter cīvēs Rōmānōs āctiō nōn nāscitur. → “Between Roman citizens no action arises from a bare agreement.” (Paul, Sententiae 2.14.1)
29.13 Ex dolō malō nōn oritur āctiō. → “No action arises from fraud.” (maxim, applied by Lord Mansfield in Holman v Johnson, 1775)
29.14 Tribūnal ex officiō prōcēdēns testēs ē prōvinciā ēvocāvit. → “Proceeding of its own motion, the tribunal summoned witnesses from the province.”
29.15 Lēx quae nōn ex tunc sed ex nunc valet facta praeterita nōn tangit. → “A law that takes effect not from then but from now does not touch past acts.”
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29.1 Ex officiō agit.
29.2 Testis ex urbe venit.
29.3 Ē carcere exiit.
29.4 Ex contractū obligātur.
29.5 Ē tabulīs recitāvit.
29.6 Notārius exemplum ex librō īnstrūmentōrum dēscrīpsit.
29.7 Iūdex ex aequō et bonō dēcrēvit.
29.8 Reus ex vinculīs causam dīxit.
29.9 Ex eā rē nūlla āctiō nāscitur.
29.10 Hērēs ē bonīs dēfūnctī lēgāta solvit.
29.11 Obligātiōnēs aut ex contractū nāscuntur aut ex maleficiō aut propriō quōdam iūre ex variīs causārum figūrīs.
29.12 Ex nūdō pactō inter cīvēs Rōmānōs āctiō nōn nāscitur.
29.13 Ex dolō malō nōn oritur āctiō.
29.14 Tribūnal ex officiō prōcēdēns testēs ē prōvinciā ēvocāvit.
29.15 Lēx quae nōn ex tunc sed ex nunc valet facta praeterita nōn tangit.
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These are the grammar rules for ex, ē in Latin:
1. Case. Ex always takes the ablative: ex urbe (3rd declension -e), ex contractū (4th -ū), ex officiō (2nd -ō), ē prōvinciā (1st -ā), ē tabulīs (plural -īs), ex rē (5th -ē). Ex never takes the accusative. A form like ✗ ex contractum is always wrong.
2. The two forms. Ex may be used before any sound. Ē may be used only before a consonant. Correct: ex officiō, ex hīs, ex parte, ē carcere, ē prōvinciā. Wrong: ✗ ē officiō, ✗ ē aequō. When in doubt, write ex.
3. Word order. Ex usually stands directly before its noun. An adjective or genitive can come between them: ex nūdō pactō (29.12), ex variīs causārum figūrīs (29.11). With a relative or demonstrative the order is often ex quō, ex eā rē (29.9). Latin can also put ex between an adjective and its noun (magnō ex perīculō), but this is rare in legal prose.
4. The main senses in legal Latin.
Place (motion out of): testis ex urbe venit, ē carcere exiit, testēs ē prōvinciā ēvocāvit.
Source or origin: obligātiō ex contractū nāscitur; ex dolō malō nōn oritur āctiō. The verbs nāscor (be born) and orior (arise) combine with ex constantly. Roman law describes rights and actions as “born out of” facts.
Standard (according to): ex aequō et bonō, ex lēge, ex ūsū, ex sententiā, ex fōrmulā. English says “according to” or “in accordance with”; Latin says “out of.”
Authority or capacity: ex officiō, “by virtue of office”; ex mandātō, “under a mandate.”
Point in time: ex eō tempore, “from that time”; ex tunc, ex nunc (modern civilian usage, with an adverb after the preposition).
Material or fund: ē bonīs dēfūnctī solvere, “to pay out of the deceased’s estate.”
Partitive (one of a group): ūnus ex hērēdibus, “one of the heirs”; quis ex vōbīs?, “which of you?” This use replaces a partitive genitive.
State or condition, in a few idioms: ex vinculīs causam dīcere, “to plead one’s case in chains,” that is, as a prisoner. The idiom is attested in Caesar (Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.4, of Orgetorix: ex vinculīs causam dīcere coēgērunt) and in Livy, Book 29. Latin sees the speaker as speaking from out of his chains.
5. Fixed adverbial phrases. Ex integrō (afresh, anew), ex ōrdine (in order, one after another), ex parte (in part; also “on one side,” in the legal sense ex parte), ex improvīsō (unexpectedly), verbum ē verbō (word for word, Cicero, De Finibus 3.15).
6. Ex as a prefix. It appears as ex- before vowels and before c, p, q, s, t (excipere, expōnere, exsequī, extrahere). It appears as ē- before b, d, g, l, m, n, r, v (ēdīcere, ēvocāre, ēmittere). It appears as ef- before f (efferre, efficere). The compound often repeats the preposition: ē carcere exīre, ex armāriō prōmere.
The paradigm used in this lesson (ablatives governed by ex / ē): officiō, urbe, carcere, contractū, tabulīs, librō, aequō, bonō, vinculīs, eā rē, bonīs, maleficiō, variīs figūrīs, pactō, dolō malō, prōvinciā; in the Genre Section armāriō, indice, īnstrūmentō, scrīptūrā, ōrdine, verbō, integrō, sententiā, ūsū, officiō, tabulā, arbitriō, hērēdibus, exemplīs, tabulāriō, praeceptīs.
Common Mistakes
Accusative after ex: ✗ ex contractum. English speakers carry over “from + object.” The ablative is always required: ex contractū.
Ē before a vowel: ✗ ē officiō, ✗ ē aequō. Only ex is possible before a vowel or h.
Confusing ex with ab: ab names the agent of a passive verb (ā iūdice damnātus, “condemned by the judge”). Ex does not. ✗ ex iūdice damnātus is wrong.
Confusing ex with dē: dē testāmentō loquī means “to speak about the will.” Ex testāmentō petere means “to claim under the will.” Keep the two apart. A legatee claims ex testāmentō.
Reading the English meaning into the phrase: ex post facto does not mean “after the fact” in general. It means “from a thing done afterwards,” and in constitutional law it names laws that attach consequences to acts already done.
Using the nominative or accusative form of a legal term after ex: the dictionary form is dēlictum, but after ex it must be ex dēlictō, never ✗ ex dēlictum; contractus becomes ex contractū (4th declension, long ū).
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The Sources of Obligation
Roman lawyers organised their law of obligations around the preposition ex. Gaius (c. 160 AD) divided all obligations into those born ex contractū and those born ex dēlictō (Institutes 3.88, cited in Section F). In a later work, excerpted in the Digest (44.7.1 pr.), he added a third group: obligations that arise ex variīs causārum figūrīs, “from various kinds of causes.” Justinian’s Institutes (3.13.2) refined this into four: ex contractū, quasi ex contractū, ex maleficiō, quasi ex maleficiō. The words contract, quasi-contract, delict and quasi-delict in modern civil codes, and the common lawyer’s “contract, tort and restitution,” all descend from this pattern built on ex.
Ex in Common Law Practice
Ex parte: an application made by one party without notice to the other, as with an ex parte injunction. In case names, “ex parte Smith” means “on the application of Smith.”
Ex officio: by virtue of office. An ex officio member of a board holds the seat because of another post, not by election.
Ex post facto: Article I, §9 of the United States Constitution provides that “No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.” In Calder v. Bull (1798) the Supreme Court confined the clause to criminal laws.
Ex gratia: a payment made as a favour, without admitting any legal liability.
Ex turpi causa non oritur actio and ex dolo malo non oritur actio: no action arises from a base cause or from fraud. In Holman v Johnson (1775) Lord Mansfield stated: “The principle of public policy is this; ex dolo malo non oritur actio.” The illegality defence in English law still starts from this maxim.
Ex facto oritur ius: law arises from the fact. The maxim is used in international law, often set against its opposite, ex iniuria ius non oritur.
Ex in the Civil Law and International Law
Ex aequo et bono: Article 38(2) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice preserves “the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the parties agree thereto.” Arbitration rules use the same phrase, and it is close to the civil-law arbitrator’s power to decide as amiable compositeur.
Ex tunc and ex nunc: continental lawyers use these phrases for the effect in time of a nullity, a rescission or a court’s declaration. Ex tunc is retroactive, from the moment of the act. Ex nunc runs only from now. Classical Latin never put an adverb after ex this way. The phrases are later legal Latin, and they are now standard in EU and civil-law judgments.
Notarial Practice
Notaries have always issued copies ex officiō, and their certified copies are exempla (English “exemplification”). An extract from a register is literally what has been “drawn out” of it (extractum, from ex + trahere). The traditional collation clause at the foot of a notarial copy, concordat cum originali (“it agrees with the original”), certifies that the copy was taken word for word from the original. The Genre Section below shows the procedure.
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The following passage opens Gaius’s treatment of obligations in his Institutes (c. 160 AD), Book III, §§88–89. This is the first place in Roman law where obligations are sorted by their source, and it does the sorting with the preposition ex.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Nunc now trānseāmus let-us-pass-over ad to obligātiōnēs obligations quārum of-which summa the-highest dīvīsiō division in into duās two speciēs kinds dīdūcitur is-drawn-apart
F.1b Nunc /nuŋk/ now.ADV trānseāmus /traːn.seˈaː.mus/ pass-over.1PL.PRES.SUBJ ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC obligātiōnēs /ob.li.ɡaː.tiˈoː.neːs/ obligation.ACC.F.PL quārum /ˈkʷaː.rum/ which.GEN.F.PL summa /ˈsum.ma/ highest.NOM.F.SG dīvīsiō /diːˈwiː.si.oː/ division.NOM.F.SG in /in/ into.PREP+ACC duās /ˈdu.aːs/ two.ACC.F.PL speciēs /ˈspe.ki.eːs/ kind.ACC.F.PL dīdūcitur /diːˈduː.ki.tur/ draw-apart.3SG.PRES.PASS
F.2a omnis every enim for obligātiō obligation vel either ex from contractū contract nāscitur is-born vel or ex from dēlictō delict
F.2b omnis /ˈom.nis/ every.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ obligātiō /ob.liˈɡaː.ti.oː/ obligation.NOM.F.SG vel /wel/ either.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL contractū /konˈtrak.tuː/ contract.ABL.M.SG nāscitur /ˈnaːs.ki.tur/ be-born.3SG.PRES.DEP vel /wel/ or.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL dēlictō /deːˈlik.toː/ delict.ABL.N.SG
F.3a Et and prius first videāmus let-us-see dē about hīs those quae which ex from contractū contract nāscuntur are-born
F.3b Et /et/ and.CONJ prius /ˈpri.us/ earlier.ADV.COMP videāmus /wi.deˈaː.mus/ see.1PL.PRES.SUBJ dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL hīs /hiːs/ this.ABL.F.PL quae /kʷae̯/ which.NOM.F.PL ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL contractū /konˈtrak.tuː/ contract.ABL.M.SG nāscuntur /naːsˈkun.tur/ be-born.3PL.PRES.DEP
F.4a Hārum of-these autem moreover quattuor four genera types sunt are aut either enim for rē by-thing contrahitur is-contracted obligātiō an-obligation aut or verbīs by-words aut or litterīs by-writing aut or cōnsēnsū by-consent
F.4b Hārum /ˈhaː.rum/ this.GEN.F.PL autem /ˈau̯.tem/ moreover.CONJ quattuor /ˈkʷat.tu.or/ four.NUM genera /ˈɡe.ne.ra/ type.NOM.N.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES aut /au̯t/ either.CONJ enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ rē /reː/ thing.ABL.F.SG contrahitur /konˈtra.hi.tur/ contract.3SG.PRES.PASS obligātiō /ob.liˈɡaː.ti.oː/ obligation.NOM.F.SG aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ verbīs /ˈwer.biːs/ word.ABL.N.PL aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ litterīs /ˈlit.te.riːs/ writing.ABL.F.PL aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ cōnsēnsū /koːnˈseːn.suː/ consent.ABL.M.SG
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Nunc transeamus ad obligationes, quarum summa divisio in duas species diducitur: omnis enim obligatio vel ex contractu nascitur vel ex delicto. Et prius videamus de his, quae ex contractu nascuntur. Harum autem quattuor genera sunt: aut enim re contrahitur obligatio aut verbis aut litteris aut consensu.
→ “Now let us pass on to obligations, whose highest division is into two kinds: for every obligation arises either from contract or from delict. And first let us look at those that arise from contract. Of these there are four types: an obligation is contracted either by delivery of a thing, or by words, or by writing, or by consent.”
— Gaius, Institutes III.88–89 (c. 160 AD)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Nunc transeamus ad obligationes, quarum summa divisio in duas species diducitur: omnis enim obligatio vel ex contractu nascitur vel ex delicto. Et prius videamus de his, quae ex contractu nascuntur. Harum autem quattuor genera sunt: aut enim re contrahitur obligatio aut verbis aut litteris aut consensu.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Ex occurs three times, each time with an ablative of source: ex contractū (4th declension, long ū), ex dēlictō (2nd declension neuter). In both clauses it is paired with nāscor, “to be born.” Gaius treats an obligation as something born out of an event. In the last sentence the four ways of contracting are plain ablatives of means with no preposition: rē, verbīs, litterīs, cōnsēnsū. Compare the two. Ex marks where the obligation comes from. The bare ablative marks how the contract is made. Note also that ex dēlictō is added after the verb, so the word order is vel ex contractū nāscitur vel ex dēlictō. The verb is understood again in the second half. This is typical of Gaius’s compact style.
Trānseāmus and videāmus are hortatory subjunctives, “let us pass on,” “let us see.” This is the voice of a teacher leading students through the syllabus. Dīdūcitur (dis- + dūcere, “to draw apart”) is the verb of dividing a subject into its species.
Commentary. The text of Gaius’s Institutes was lost for centuries. It was recovered in 1816, when Barthold Georg Niebuhr identified it beneath the writings of St Jerome in a palimpsest of the Chapter Library at Verona. These two sentences are the foundation of the civilian law of obligations. Justinian’s Institutes (3.13) expanded the two sources to four, and through Justinian the classification reached every modern civil code and, indirectly, the common law’s division between contract and tort. The spelling in F-B and F-C is standardised (v for consonantal u). The Latin Library text prints uel, diuisio, uideamus, and the palimpsest itself has no macrons.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
A senior notary gives written instructions to a newly admitted colleague on issuing an exemplum, a certified copy of an instrument held in the register. The instructions use the present imperative and the future imperative in -tō, the traditional imperative of Roman statutes and formal legal commands. Every step names where something is taken from, so ex runs all through the text. The text is a pedagogical composition in notarial Latin, not a quotation.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
29.16a Prīmum first librum the-book ex out-of armāriō the-cupboard prōme take-out
29.16b Prīmum /ˈpriː.mum/ first.ADV librum /ˈli.brum/ book.ACC.M.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL armāriō /arˈmaː.ri.oː/ cupboard.ABL.N.SG prōme /ˈproː.me/ take-out.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.17a Ex from indice the-index numerum the-number īnstrūmentī of-the-instrument cognōsce find-out
29.17b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL indice /ˈin.di.ke/ index.ABL.M.SG numerum /ˈnu.me.rum/ number.ACC.M.SG īnstrūmentī /iːn.struːˈmen.tiː/ instrument.GEN.N.SG cognōsce /koŋˈnoːs.ke/ learn.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.18a Deinde then verba the-words ex out-of ipsō the-very īnstrūmentō instrument dīligenter carefully dēscrībe copy
29.18b Deinde /ˈdein.de/ then.ADV verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL ipsō /ˈip.soː/ very.ABL.N.SG īnstrūmentō /iːn.struːˈmen.toː/ instrument.ABL.N.SG dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV dēscrībe /deːˈskriː.be/ copy.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.19a Nūllum no verbum word ex out-of scrīptūrā the-writing omittitō you-shall-omit
29.19b Nūllum /ˈnuːl.lum/ no.ACC.N.SG verbum /ˈwer.bum/ word.ACC.N.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL scrīptūrā /skriːpˈtuː.raː/ writing.ABL.F.SG omittitō /oˈmit.ti.toː/ omit.2SG.FUT.IMP
29.20a Quae what-things in in margine the-margin adnotāta noted sunt are ea those quoque also ex in ōrdine order exscrībitō you-shall-copy-out
29.20b Quae /kʷae̯/ which.NOM.N.PL in /in/ in.PREP+ABL margine /ˈmar.ɡi.ne/ margin.ABL.M.SG adnotāta /ad.noˈtaː.ta/ note.PERF.PART.NOM.N.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES ea /ˈe.a/ that.ACC.N.PL quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL ōrdine /ˈoːr.di.ne/ order.ABL.M.SG exscrībitō /eksˈskriː.bi.toː/ copy-out.2SG.FUT.IMP
29.21a Tum then exemplum the-copy cum with archetypō the-original verbum word ē from verbō word cōnfer compare
29.21b Tum /tum/ then.ADV exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG cum /kum/ with.PREP+ABL archetypō /arˈkʰe.ty.poː/ original.ABL.N.SG verbum /ˈwer.bum/ word.ACC.N.SG ē /eː/ from.PREP+ABL verbō /ˈwer.boː/ word.ABL.N.SG cōnfer /ˈkoːn.fer/ compare.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.22a Sī if quid anything discrepat disagrees ex from integrō the-whole rescrībe write-again
29.22b Sī /siː/ if.CONJ quid /kʷid/ anything.NOM.N.SG discrepat /ˈdis.kre.pat/ disagree.3SG.PRES ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL integrō /ˈin.te.ɡroː/ whole.ABL.N.SG rescrībe /reˈskriː.be/ rewrite.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.23a Nihil nothing ex according-to tuā your sententiā opinion mūtātō you-shall-change
29.23b Nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG ex /eks/ according-to.PREP+ABL tuā /ˈtu.aː/ your.ABL.F.SG sententiā /senˈten.ti.aː/ opinion.ABL.F.SG mūtātō /muːˈtaː.toː/ change.2SG.FUT.IMP
29.24a Deinde then hanc this clausulam clause ex according-to ūsū the-custom notāriōrum of-notaries subscrībe write-beneath Concordat it-agrees cum with originālī the-original
29.24b Deinde /ˈdein.de/ then.ADV hanc /haŋk/ this.ACC.F.SG clausulam /ˈklau̯.su.lam/ clause.ACC.F.SG ex /eks/ according-to.PREP+ABL ūsū /ˈuː.suː/ custom.ABL.M.SG notāriōrum /no.taː.riˈoː.rum/ notary.GEN.M.PL subscrībe /subˈskriː.be/ write-beneath.2SG.PRES.IMP Concordat /konˈkor.dat/ agree.3SG.PRES cum /kum/ with.PREP+ABL originālī /o.ri.ɡiˈnaː.liː/ original.ABL.N.SG
29.25a Posteā afterwards exemplum the-copy ex by-virtue-of officiō office sigillō with-seal tuō your obsignātō you-shall-seal
29.25b Posteā /ˈpos.te.aː/ afterwards.ADV exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL officiō /ofˈfi.ki.oː/ office.ABL.N.SG sigillō /siˈɡil.loː/ seal.ABL.N.SG tuō /ˈtu.oː/ your.ABL.N.SG obsignātō /ob.siɡˈnaː.toː/ seal.2SG.FUT.IMP
29.26a Mercēdem the-fee ex according-to tabulā the-tariff pūblicā public nōn not ex according-to arbitriō discretion exigitō you-shall-charge
29.26b Mercēdem /merˈkeː.dem/ fee.ACC.F.SG ex /eks/ according-to.PREP+ABL tabulā /ˈta.bu.laː/ tariff.ABL.F.SG pūblicā /ˈpuː.bli.kaː/ public.ABL.F.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV ex /eks/ according-to.PREP+ABL arbitriō /arˈbi.tri.oː/ discretion.ABL.N.SG exigitō /ekˈsi.ɡi.toː/ exact.2SG.FUT.IMP
29.27a Sī if quis anyone ex of hērēdibus the-heirs exemplum a-copy petit asks-for eī to-him quoque also dā give
29.27b Sī /siː/ if.CONJ quis /kʷis/ anyone.NOM.M.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL hērēdibus /heːˈreː.di.bus/ heir.ABL.M.PL exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG petit /ˈpe.tit/ ask-for.3SG.PRES eī /ˈe.iː/ he.DAT.M.SG quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV dā /daː/ give.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.28a Ūnum one ex of exemplīs the-copies in in tabulāriō the-record-office servā keep
29.28b Ūnum /ˈuː.num/ one.ACC.N.SG ex /eks/ out-of.PREP+ABL exemplīs /ekˈsem.pliːs/ copy.ABL.N.PL in /in/ in.PREP+ABL tabulāriō /ta.buˈlaː.ri.oː/ record-office.ABL.N.SG servā /ˈser.waː/ keep.2SG.PRES.IMP
29.29a Postrēmō finally librum the-book in into armārium the-cupboard repōne put-back nēmō no-one eum it ē out-of tabulāriō the-record-office efferat let-carry
29.29b Postrēmō /posˈtreː.moː/ finally.ADV librum /ˈli.brum/ book.ACC.M.SG in /in/ into.PREP+ACC armārium /arˈmaː.ri.um/ cupboard.ACC.N.SG repōne /reˈpoː.ne/ put-back.2SG.PRES.IMP nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG eum /ˈe.um/ it.ACC.M.SG ē /eː/ out-of.PREP+ABL tabulāriō /ta.buˈlaː.ri.oː/ record-office.ABL.N.SG efferat /ˈef.fe.rat/ carry-out.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
29.30a Ex from hīs these praeceptīs rules fidēs faith pūblica public nāscitur is-born
29.30b Ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL hīs /hiːs/ this.ABL.N.PL praeceptīs /prae̯ˈkep.tiːs/ rule.ABL.N.PL fidēs /ˈfi.deːs/ faith.NOM.F.SG pūblica /ˈpuː.bli.ka/ public.NOM.F.SG nāscitur /ˈnaːs.ki.tur/ be-born.3SG.PRES.DEP
Part B: Natural Sentences
29.16 Prīmum librum ex armāriō prōme. → “First, take the register out of the cupboard.”
29.17 Ex indice numerum īnstrūmentī cognōsce. → “Find the number of the instrument from the index.”
29.18 Deinde verba ex ipsō īnstrūmentō dīligenter dēscrībe. → “Then copy the words carefully from the instrument itself.”
29.19 Nūllum verbum ex scrīptūrā omittitō. → “You shall leave out no word of the text.”
29.20 Quae in margine adnotāta sunt, ea quoque ex ōrdine exscrībitō. → “Whatever is noted in the margin, you shall copy that out too, in its order.”
29.21 Tum exemplum cum archetypō verbum ē verbō cōnfer. → “Then compare the copy with the original, word for word.”
29.22 Sī quid discrepat, ex integrō rescrībe. → “If anything disagrees, write it out again from the beginning.”
29.23 Nihil ex tuā sententiā mūtātō. → “You shall change nothing according to your own opinion.”
29.24 Deinde hanc clausulam ex ūsū notāriōrum subscrībe: Concordat cum originālī. → “Then, following notarial custom, write this clause beneath: ‘It agrees with the original.’”
29.25 Posteā exemplum ex officiō sigillō tuō obsignātō. → “Afterwards you shall seal the copy with your seal, by virtue of your office.”
29.26 Mercēdem ex tabulā pūblicā, nōn ex arbitriō, exigitō. → “You shall charge the fee according to the public tariff, not at your own discretion.”
29.27 Sī quis ex hērēdibus exemplum petit, eī quoque dā. → “If any of the heirs asks for a copy, give one to him as well.”
29.28 Ūnum ex exemplīs in tabulāriō servā. → “Keep one of the copies in the record office.”
29.29 Postrēmō librum in armārium repōne; nēmō eum ē tabulāriō efferat. → “Finally, put the register back in the cupboard; let no one carry it out of the record office.”
29.30 Ex hīs praeceptīs fidēs pūblica nāscitur. → “From these rules public faith is born.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
29.16 Prīmum librum ex armāriō prōme.
29.17 Ex indice numerum īnstrūmentī cognōsce.
29.18 Deinde verba ex ipsō īnstrūmentō dīligenter dēscrībe.
29.19 Nūllum verbum ex scrīptūrā omittitō.
29.20 Quae in margine adnotāta sunt, ea quoque ex ōrdine exscrībitō.
29.21 Tum exemplum cum archetypō verbum ē verbō cōnfer.
29.22 Sī quid discrepat, ex integrō rescrībe.
29.23 Nihil ex tuā sententiā mūtātō.
29.24 Deinde hanc clausulam ex ūsū notāriōrum subscrībe: Concordat cum originālī.
29.25 Posteā exemplum ex officiō sigillō tuō obsignātō.
29.26 Mercēdem ex tabulā pūblicā, nōn ex arbitriō, exigitō.
29.27 Sī quis ex hērēdibus exemplum petit, eī quoque dā.
29.28 Ūnum ex exemplīs in tabulāriō servā.
29.29 Postrēmō librum in armārium repōne; nēmō eum ē tabulāriō efferat.
29.30 Ex hīs praeceptīs fidēs pūblica nāscitur.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The instructions show nearly every sense of ex in one short text. Place: ex armāriō prōme (29.16), ē tabulāriō efferat (29.29). Source: ex indice cognōsce (29.17), ex ipsō īnstrūmentō dēscrībe (29.18), ex hīs praeceptīs nāscitur (29.30). Standard: ex tuā sententiā (29.23), ex ūsū notāriōrum (29.24), ex tabulā pūblicā, nōn ex arbitriō (29.26). Capacity: ex officiō (29.25). Partitive: quis ex hērēdibus (29.27), ūnum ex exemplīs (29.28). Adverbial phrases: ex ōrdine (29.20), ex integrō (29.22), verbum ē verbō (29.21).
The form ē appears only before consonants: ē verbō, ē tabulāriō. Everywhere else the text uses ex, including before h (ex hīs, ex hērēdibus). Note the prefixes that repeat the preposition: ex armāriō prōme, ē tabulāriō efferat (ef- = ex- before f), and exscrībitō.
Two imperatives. The present imperative (prōme, cognōsce, dēscrībe, cōnfer, rescrībe, subscrībe, dā, servā, repōne) gives the steps of the task. The future imperative in -tō (omittitō, exscrībitō, mūtātō, obsignātō, exigitō) gives standing rules. It is the form of the Twelve Tables and later Roman statutes, and it suits a rule that binds the notary on every occasion. Nēmō … efferat (29.29) is a jussive subjunctive in the third person, “let no one carry it out.”
Concordat cum originālī (29.24) is quoted as the traditional collation clause of notarial copies. Originale as a noun (“the original document”) is medieval and notarial Latin, not classical. Elsewhere the text uses the classical archetypum (Juvenal, Pliny) for the original.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Ex is always /eks/ with a short vowel. Ē is always /eː/ with a long one. The length of the vowel, not just the missing x, tells the two apart when spoken.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all legal citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions and law reports. Legal phrases in running English text (ex parte, ex aequo et bono) are likewise normally printed without macrons and in italics.
Watch the long vowels in words that come up in this lesson: contractū (4th-declension ablative), āctiō and āctum (long ā by Lachmann’s law), nāscor and nātus, dēlictum, cōnsēnsus. Notārius has a short o (from nŏta).
Ex + s: in compounds beginning with s, classical spelling keeps the s: exscrībere, exsequī, exspectāre. Medieval and modern legal spelling often drops it (exequi, execution). Both spellings occur in legal texts.
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūs, verbum). Many editions of the jurists print i and u throughout (ius, uerbum). They are the same words.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ²⁹ ◊ᵉˣ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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