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Welcome to Lesson 208 of the Latinum Institute Classical Latin Reading Course. Today's word is itaque: "and so, therefore, accordingly." It stands at frequency rank 208 in the Dickinson College Core Latin Vocabulary. Itaque is one of the small joining words that carry a Latin argument or story forward. It tells the reader that what follows is the result of what has just been said.
What does itaque mean in Latin?
Itaque is a conjunction (some grammars call it an adverb) meaning "and so," "therefore," "accordingly." It never changes its form. Lewis and Short give it two closely related senses. In the first, it keeps its literal meaning "and thus," "and in this way," the same as et ita. In the second, far more common, it introduces a consequence: "therefore," "and for that reason." Fessus sum; itaque dormiō means "I am tired; and so I am sleeping."
Latin handles "so" differently from English, and a reader needs to know three things. First, English "so" does two jobs. "So" meaning "therefore" is itaque, but "so" meaning "to such a degree" (as in "so tired that…") is ita or tam, followed by ut. Second, in Classical prose itaque normally stands first in its clause, as in Caesar and Cicero. Igitur, which also means "therefore," usually stands second. From Livy onwards itaque is sometimes put second as well (208.15). Third, itaque and nam point in opposite directions. Nam and enim ("for") look back to a cause; itaque looks forward to a result. Dormiō, nam fessus sum ("I am sleeping, for I am tired") says the same thing as Fessus sum; itaque dormiō, but in the other order.
Etymology: itaque is ita ("thus, so, in this way") joined to the enclitic -que ("and"). Literally it means "and thus." In time the two parts fused into a single word with its own meaning, and so itaque does not follow the usual rule for -que in stress (see the Pronunciation Guide). Key Takeaways - Itaque ("and so, therefore") is indeclinable and is made of ita ("thus") + -que ("and"); all its vowels are short: ĭtăque. - It introduces the result of what has just been said; nam and enim ("for") introduce the cause. - In Cicero and Caesar it usually stands first in its clause; from Livy onwards it can stand second. - English "so… that" is not itaque but ita (or tam)… ut. - It is stressed on the first syllable, Í-ta-que, even though it ends in -que.
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itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ — three syllables, I-ta-que. All three vowels are short. The i is like the vowel in English "it," the a like the a in "father" but short, and the final e like the e in "pet." Qu is a single sound /kʷ/, like the qu in English "quick."
Stress. The second-to-last syllable (-ta-) is short and open, so by the normal rule the stress falls on the third-from-last: Í-ta-que. Words ending in the enclitic -que usually draw the stress onto the syllable just before it (virúmque, "and the man"), and late Roman grammarians taught that rule. They made an exception of itaque, which keeps the normal stress: Í-ta-que, not i-TA-que.
ita /ˈɪ.ta/ — I-ta, both vowels short. Do not confuse it with itaque: ita alone means "thus, so."
A note on the IPA in this lesson: short vowels are written /a ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/ and long vowels /aː eː iː oː uː/; v is /w/, consonantal i is /j/, qu is /kʷ/, and ae and au are the diphthongs /ae̯/ and /au̯/. Final -m is written /m/ for clarity, although in Classical speech it mostly nasalised the vowel before it.
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208.1a Itaque and-so maneō I-stay.
208.1b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ maneō /ˈma.nɛ.oː/ stay.1SG.PRES
208.2a Itaque and-so discēdimus we-leave.
208.2b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ discēdimus /dɪsˈkeː.dɪ.mʊs/ leave.1PL.PRES
208.3a Pluit it-rains; itaque and-so manēmus we-stay.
208.3b Pluit /ˈplʊ.ɪt/ rain.3SG.PRES.IMPERS itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ manēmus /maˈneː.mʊs/ stay.1PL.PRES
208.4a Fessus tired sum I-am; itaque and-so dormiō I-sleep.
208.4b Fessus /ˈfɛs.sʊs/ tired.M.NOM.SG sum /sʊm/ be.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ dormiō /ˈdɔr.mɪ.oː/ sleep.1SG.PRES
208.5a Puer the-boy aegrōtat is-ill; itaque and-so nōn not lūdit he-plays.
208.5b Puer /ˈpʊ.ɛr/ boy.M.NOM.SG aegrōtat /ae̯ˈɡroː.tat/ be-ill.3SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ nōn /noːn/ not lūdit /ˈluː.dɪt/ play.3SG.PRES
208.6a Via the-road longa long erat was; itaque and-so mātūrē early profectī set-out sumus we-have.
208.6b Via /ˈwɪ.a/ road.F.NOM.SG longa /ˈlɔŋ.ɡa/ long.F.NOM.SG erat /ˈɛ.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ mātūrē /maːˈtuː.reː/ early.ADV profectī /prɔˈfɛk.tiː/ set-out.PERF.PTCP.M.NOM.PL sumus /ˈsʊ.mʊs/ be.1PL.PRES
208.7a Mīles the-soldier vulnerātus wounded erat had-been; itaque and-so in in castrīs the-camp mānsit he-stayed.
208.7b Mīles /ˈmiː.lɛs/ soldier.M.NOM.SG vulnerātus /wʊl.nɛˈraː.tʊs/ wound.PERF.PASS.PTCP.M.NOM.SG erat /ˈɛ.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ in /ɪn/ in(+ABL) castrīs /ˈkas.triːs/ camp.N.ABL.PL mānsit /ˈmaːn.sɪt/ stay.3SG.PERF
208.8a Pecūniam money nōn not habēbam I-had; itaque and-so librum the-book nōn not ēmī I-bought.
208.8b Pecūniam /pɛˈkuː.nɪ.am/ money.F.ACC.SG nōn /noːn/ not habēbam /haˈbeː.bam/ have.1SG.IMPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ librum /ˈlɪ.brʊm/ book.M.ACC.SG nōn /noːn/ not ēmī /ˈeː.miː/ buy.1SG.PERF
208.9a Hostēs the-enemy appropinquābant were-approaching; itaque and-so cīvēs the-citizens portās the-gates clausērunt closed.
208.9b Hostēs /ˈhɔs.teːs/ enemy.M.NOM.PL appropinquābant /ap.prɔ.pɪŋˈkʷaː.bant/ approach.3PL.IMPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ cīvēs /ˈkiː.weːs/ citizen.M.NOM.PL portās /ˈpɔr.taːs/ gate.F.ACC.PL clausērunt /klau̯ˈseː.rʊnt/ close.3PL.PERF
208.10a Pater father ita so prōmīserat had-promised, itaque and-so fēcit he-did.
208.10b Pater /ˈpa.tɛr/ father.M.NOM.SG ita /ˈɪ.ta/ thus.ADV prōmīserat /proːˈmiː.sɛ.rat/ promise.3SG.PLUPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ and-thus.CONJ fēcit /ˈfeː.kɪt/ do.3SG.PERF
208.11a Reī for-the-matter frūmentāriae of-grain prōspiciendum must-be-provided exīstimāvit he-thought; itaque and-so iter his-march ab from Helvētiīs the-Helvetii āvertit he-turned-away ac and Bibracte to-Bibracte īre to-go contendit he-hastened.
208.11b Reī /ˈrɛ.iː/ matter.F.DAT.SG frūmentāriae /fruː.mɛnˈtaː.rɪ.ae̯/ of-grain.F.DAT.SG prōspiciendum /proː.spɪ.kɪˈɛn.dʊm/ provide.GERV.N.NOM.SG exīstimāvit /ɛk.siːs.tɪˈmaː.wɪt/ think.3SG.PERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ iter /ˈɪ.tɛr/ march.N.ACC.SG ab /ab/ from(+ABL) Helvētiīs /hɛlˈweː.tɪ.iːs/ Helvetii.M.ABL.PL āvertit /aːˈwɛr.tɪt/ turn-away.3SG.PRES ac /ak/ and Bibracte /bɪˈbrak.tɛ/ Bibracte.N.ACC.SG īre /ˈiː.rɛ/ go.PRES.INF contendit /kɔnˈtɛn.dɪt/ hasten.3SG.PRES
208.12a Itaque and-so prius before quam than quicquam anything cōnārētur he-should-attempt, Dīviciācum Diviciacus ad to sē himself vocārī to-be-called iubet he-orders.
208.12b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ prius /ˈprɪ.ʊs/ earlier.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than quicquam /ˈkʷɪk.kʷam/ anything.N.ACC.SG cōnārētur /koː.naːˈreː.tʊr/ attempt.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ.DEP Dīviciācum /diː.wɪ.kɪˈaː.kʊm/ Diviciacus.M.ACC.SG ad /ad/ to(+ACC) sē /seː/ himself.ACC.REFL vocārī /wɔˈkaː.riː/ call.PRES.PASS.INF iubet /ˈjʊ.bɛt/ order.3SG.PRES
208.13a Itaque and-so ad to magistrātum the-magistrate Mamertīnum Mamertine statim at-once dēdūcitur is-led-off Gavius Gavius, eōque and-on-that ipsō very diē day cāsū by-chance Messānam to-Messana Verrēs Verres venit comes.
208.13b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ ad /ad/ to(+ACC) magistrātum /ma.ɡɪsˈtraː.tʊm/ magistrate.M.ACC.SG Mamertīnum /ma.mɛrˈtiː.nʊm/ Mamertine.M.ACC.SG statim /ˈsta.tɪm/ at-once.ADV dēdūcitur /deːˈduː.kɪ.tʊr/ lead-off.3SG.PRES.PASS Gavius /ˈɡa.wɪ.ʊs/ Gavius.M.NOM.SG eōque /ɛˈoː.kʷɛ/ that.M.ABL.SG-and ipsō /ˈɪp.soː/ very.M.ABL.SG diē /ˈdɪ.eː/ day.M.ABL.SG cāsū /ˈkaː.suː/ chance.M.ABL.SG Messānam /mɛsˈsaː.nam/ Messana.F.ACC.SG Verrēs /ˈwɛr.reːs/ Verres.M.NOM.SG venit /ˈwɛ.nɪt/ come.3SG.PRES
208.14a Itaque and-so omnis all grātia influence potentia power honōs office dīvitiae riches apud with illōs them sunt are aut or ubi where illī they volunt wish; nōbīs to-us relīquēre they-have-left perīcula dangers repulsās defeats iūdicia trials egestātem poverty.
208.14b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ omnis /ˈɔm.nɪs/ all.F.NOM.SG grātia /ˈɡraː.tɪ.a/ influence.F.NOM.SG potentia /pɔˈtɛn.tɪ.a/ power.F.NOM.SG honōs /ˈhɔ.noːs/ office.M.NOM.SG dīvitiae /diːˈwɪ.tɪ.ae̯/ riches.F.NOM.PL apud /ˈa.pʊd/ with(+ACC) illōs /ˈɪl.loːs/ that.M.ACC.PL sunt /sʊnt/ be.3PL.PRES aut /au̯t/ or ubi /ˈʊ.bɪ/ where illī /ˈɪl.liː/ that.M.NOM.PL volunt /ˈwɔ.lʊnt/ want.3PL.PRES nōbīs /ˈnoː.biːs/ we.DAT.PL relīquēre /rɛ.liːˈkʷeː.rɛ/ leave.3PL.PERF perīcula /pɛˈriː.kʊ.la/ danger.N.ACC.PL repulsās /rɛˈpʊl.saːs/ defeat.F.ACC.PL iūdicia /juːˈdɪ.kɪ.a/ trial.N.ACC.PL egestātem /ɛ.ɡɛsˈtaː.tɛm/ poverty.F.ACC.SG
208.15a Ēdīcimus we-order itaque therefore, omnēs all quī who in into verba the-words iūrāstis you-have-sworn, crāstinā on-tomorrow's diē day armātī armed ad at lacum the-lake Rēgillum Regillus adsītis you-be-present.
208.15b Ēdīcimus /eːˈdiː.kɪ.mʊs/ order.1PL.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ omnēs /ˈɔm.neːs/ all.M.NOM.PL quī /kʷiː/ who.M.NOM.PL in /ɪn/ into(+ACC) verba /ˈwɛr.ba/ word.N.ACC.PL iūrāstis /juːˈraːs.tɪs/ swear.2PL.PERF crāstinā /ˈkraːs.tɪ.naː/ of-tomorrow.F.ABL.SG diē /ˈdɪ.eː/ day.F.ABL.SG armātī /arˈmaː.tiː/ armed.M.NOM.PL ad /ad/ at(+ACC) lacum /ˈla.kʊm/ lake.M.ACC.SG Rēgillum /reːˈɡɪl.lʊm/ Regillus.M.ACC.SG adsītis /adˈsiː.tɪs/ be-present.2PL.PRES.SUBJ
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208.1 Itaque maneō. → "So I am staying."
208.2 Itaque discēdimus. → "So we are leaving."
208.3 Pluit; itaque manēmus. → "It is raining, so we are staying."
208.4 Fessus sum; itaque dormiō. → "I am tired, and so I am going to sleep."
208.5 Puer aegrōtat; itaque nōn lūdit. → "The boy is ill, so he is not playing."
208.6 Via longa erat; itaque mātūrē profectī sumus. → "The road was long, so we set out early."
208.7 Mīles vulnerātus erat; itaque in castrīs mānsit. → "The soldier had been wounded, and so he stayed in the camp."
208.8 Pecūniam nōn habēbam; itaque librum nōn ēmī. → "I had no money, so I did not buy the book."
208.9 Hostēs appropinquābant; itaque cīvēs portās clausērunt. → "The enemy were approaching; therefore the citizens shut the gates."
208.10 Pater ita prōmīserat, itaque fēcit. → "Father had promised to do it that way, and that is how he did it."
208.11 Reī frūmentāriae prōspiciendum exīstimāvit; itaque iter ab Helvētiīs āvertit ac Bibracte īre contendit. → "He thought that he must see to the corn supply; and so he turned his march away from the Helvetii and hurried to reach Bibracte." (Adapted from Caesar, Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.23.)
208.12 Itaque prius quam quicquam cōnārētur, Dīviciācum ad sē vocārī iubet. → "And so, before attempting anything, he has Diviciacus called to him." (Caesar, Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.19: the opening of a longer sentence.)
208.13 Itaque ad magistrātum Mamertīnum statim dēdūcitur Gavius, eōque ipsō diē cāsū Messānam Verrēs venit. → "And so Gavius is at once taken before the magistrate of the Mamertines, and on that very day, by chance, Verres arrives at Messana." (Cicero, In Verrem 2.5.160.)
208.14 Itaque omnis grātia, potentia, honōs, dīvitiae apud illōs sunt aut ubi illī volunt; nōbīs relīquēre perīcula, repulsās, iūdicia, egestātem. → "And so all influence, power, office and wealth are in their hands, or wherever they choose; to us they have left dangers, defeats at the polls, prosecutions and poverty." (Sallust, Bellum Catilīnae 20.8.)
208.15 Ēdīcimus itaque, omnēs quī in verba iūrāstis, crāstinā diē armātī ad lacum Rēgillum adsītis. → "We therefore order all of you who have sworn the oath to be present, armed, at Lake Regillus tomorrow." (Livy, Ab Urbe Conditā 3.20.4.)
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208.1 Itaque maneō.
208.2 Itaque discēdimus.
208.3 Pluit; itaque manēmus.
208.4 Fessus sum; itaque dormiō.
208.5 Puer aegrōtat; itaque nōn lūdit.
208.6 Via longa erat; itaque mātūrē profectī sumus.
208.7 Mīles vulnerātus erat; itaque in castrīs mānsit.
208.8 Pecūniam nōn habēbam; itaque librum nōn ēmī.
208.9 Hostēs appropinquābant; itaque cīvēs portās clausērunt.
208.10 Pater ita prōmīserat, itaque fēcit.
208.11 Reī frūmentāriae prōspiciendum exīstimāvit; itaque iter ab Helvētiīs āvertit ac Bibracte īre contendit.
208.12 Itaque prius quam quicquam cōnārētur, Dīviciācum ad sē vocārī iubet.
208.13 Itaque ad magistrātum Mamertīnum statim dēdūcitur Gavius, eōque ipsō diē cāsū Messānam Verrēs venit.
208.14 Itaque omnis grātia, potentia, honōs, dīvitiae apud illōs sunt aut ubi illī volunt; nōbīs relīquēre perīcula, repulsās, iūdicia, egestātem.
208.15 Ēdīcimus itaque, omnēs quī in verba iūrāstis, crāstinā diē armātī ad lacum Rēgillum adsītis.
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These are the grammar rules for itaque in Classical Latin:
The form. Itaque is indeclinable: it has one form only. It is a coordinating conjunction, which means that it joins two statements of equal rank. It does not change the mood of the verb. After itaque the verb is indicative unless something else in the sentence requires a subjunctive: in 208.12 the subjunctive cōnārētur is caused by prius quam, and in 208.15 the subjunctive adsītis by the verb of ordering ēdīcimus.
The two senses. 1. "And thus, and in this way" (= et ita). This is the literal sense of ita + -que. It is most easily heard when ita has just been used: Pater ita prōmīserat, itaque fēcit, "Father had promised so, and so he did" (208.10). 2. "And so, therefore, accordingly." This is the usual sense. The first statement gives the cause, and itaque introduces the result (208.3–208.9, 208.11–208.15).
Cause and result: itaque against nam and enim. Latin can state the same facts in either order: Fessus sum; itaque dormiō. — cause first, then itaque + result. Dormiō, nam fessus sum. — result first, then nam + cause. Nam and enim mean "for"; they look back to the reason. Itaque looks forward to the consequence. Enim, like igitur, normally stands second in its clause; nam and itaque normally stand first.
Position. In Cicero and Caesar itaque is almost always the first word of its clause (208.11–208.14). In Livy and later writers it is sometimes placed second or later, as Lewis and Short note; Livy writes Ēdīcimus itaque… (208.15). When you read a sentence in which itaque comes second, translate it first: "We therefore order…"
Punctuation. Because itaque begins a new statement, modern editors put a semicolon or a full stop before it (208.3–208.9). After a short cause a comma is also found (208.10).
Itaque and its neighbours. Latin has several words for "therefore": itaque — "and so": a fact follows from a fact; first in its clause. igitur — "therefore, then": often draws a conclusion or resumes a thought; usually second in its clause. ergō — "therefore, consequently": a logical conclusion, often in argument and conversation. proinde — "accordingly, so then": often with a command or exhortation. Lewis and Short record the combination itaque ergō ("and so, for that reason") in Terence and Livy.
Other constructions in Section A: pluit (208.3): an impersonal verb, "it is raining," with no subject expressed. profectī sumus (208.6): the perfect of the deponent proficīscor, passive in form and active in meaning, "we set out." vulnerātus erat (208.7): the pluperfect passive, "had been wounded"; the wound came before the staying. reī frūmentāriae prōspiciendum (esse) exīstimāvit (208.11): an impersonal gerundive of obligation in an accusative-and-infinitive, "he thought that provision must be made for the corn supply." Prōspicere takes the dative: prōspicere reī, "to see to a matter." Bibracte, a town name, stands in the accusative without a preposition to show where he was going. āvertit, contendit, iubet, dēdūcitur, venit (208.11–208.13): the historic present, used by Caesar and Cicero to make a past narrative vivid. In 208.12 the historic present iubet is followed by an imperfect subjunctive (cōnārētur), as if it were a past tense. prius quam + subjunctive (208.12): "before he should attempt anything"; the subjunctive shows that the action was only intended or anticipated. eōque ipsō diē (208.13): ablative of time when, joined by -que: "and on that very day." Cāsū is the ablative of cāsus, "by chance." relīquēre (208.14): an alternative form of relīquērunt, the third person plural perfect of relinquō. It is common in Sallust and in poetry; do not take it for an infinitive. iūrāstis (208.15): a shortened form of iūrāvistis. In verba iūrāre, "to swear into the words (of an oath)," means "to take the oath of allegiance."
Common mistakes: Using itaque for "so… that." "He was so tired that he slept" is tam fessus erat ut dormīret, never itaque. Writing et itaque. The "and" is already inside itaque (-que); et itaque says "and and so." Confusing itaque with ita. Ita means "thus, in this way"; itaque means "and so, therefore." Stressing it as i-TA-que, by the rule for -que. Say Í-ta-que. Treating itaque like igitur. In Classical prose igitur usually comes second in its clause and itaque first: Itaque…, but … igitur.
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Frequency and register. Itaque belongs above all to prose. It is a word of narrative and of argument, the hinge on which a historian moves from a reason to an action and an orator from a fact to its consequence. A reader of Caesar, Cicero, Sallust or Livy meets it on almost every page; that is why it stands so high in the Dickinson list. It is also at home in comedy, where Plautus can play on its literal meaning: ita doluī, itaque ego nunc doleō, "so I grieved, and so I grieve now," as Lewis and Short quote him.
Caesar's narrative hinge. In the Gallic War Caesar often reports first what a man knew, wanted or feared, and then, with itaque, what he did. In Book 1 the Helvetii can only leave their country through the land of the Sequani, and they ask the Aeduan Dumnorix to win the Sequani over; Caesar lists Dumnorix's reasons, and then writes itaque rem suscipit, "and so he takes the matter on" (Section F). When Caesar has decided to punish Dumnorix, itaque introduces his first step: he summons Dumnorix's brother Diviciacus (208.12). When the corn supply runs short, itaque turns his march towards the Aeduan town of Bibracte (208.11). The word makes the narrative look like a chain of reasonable decisions, and this is part of Caesar's art.
Cicero and Gavius. In the last speech against Verres, Cicero tells the story of Publius Gavius, a Roman citizen from Consa. Gavius had escaped from the stone quarries of Syracuse where Verres held prisoners, and in Messana he began to say that he would denounce the governor at Rome. Itaque, says Cicero, he was at once brought before the Mamertine magistrate, and by chance Verres arrived in Messana that same day (208.13). What follows is the scourging and crucifixion of a man who cried that he was a Roman citizen, one of the most famous scenes in Roman oratory.
Sallust's Catiline. In the Bellum Catilīnae Catiline speaks to his fellow conspirators about the few men who hold all the power at Rome. Itaque, he says, influence, power, office and wealth are theirs, while "to us they have left dangers, defeats at the polls, prosecutions and poverty" (208.14). Itaque here carries the speaker's grievance: it presents the injustice as the plain consequence of the facts he has just described.
Livy and the oath. In Book 3 of Livy the consul Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus uses the military oath the people had sworn to the previous consul to compel them to serve, and orders all who have sworn to appear armed at Lake Regillus (208.15). Livy places itaque second, a later habit of style that Cicero would hardly have used.
This is a lesson for English speakers learning Classical Latin.
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Source: Caesar, Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.9 (the last two sentences of the chapter: Dumnorix takes up the cause of the Helvetii)
Part F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Dumnorīx Dumnorix grātiā by-influence et and largītiōne by-bribery apud among Sēquanōs the-Sequani plūrimum very-much poterat was-powerful
F.1b Dumnorīx /ˈdʊm.nɔ.riːks/ Dumnorix.M.NOM.SG grātiā /ˈɡraː.tɪ.aː/ influence.F.ABL.SG et /ɛt/ and largītiōne /lar.ɡiː.tɪˈoː.nɛ/ bribery.F.ABL.SG apud /ˈa.pʊd/ among(+ACC) Sēquanōs /ˈseː.kʷa.noːs/ Sequani.M.ACC.PL plūrimum /ˈpluː.rɪ.mʊm/ most.ADV.SUPERL poterat /ˈpɔ.tɛ.rat/ be-able.3SG.IMPERF
F.2a et and Helvētiīs to-the-Helvetii erat he-was amīcus friendly
F.2b et /ɛt/ and Helvētiīs /hɛlˈweː.tɪ.iːs/ Helvetii.M.DAT.PL erat /ˈɛ.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF amīcus /aˈmiː.kʊs/ friendly.M.NOM.SG
F.3a quod because ex from eā that cīvitāte state Orgetorīgis of-Orgetorix fīliam the-daughter in into mātrimōnium marriage dūxerat he-had-led
F.3b quod /kʷɔd/ because ex /ɛks/ from(+ABL) eā /ˈɛ.aː/ that.F.ABL.SG cīvitāte /kiː.wɪˈtaː.tɛ/ state.F.ABL.SG Orgetorīgis /ɔr.ɡɛ.tɔˈriː.ɡɪs/ Orgetorix.M.GEN.SG fīliam /ˈfiː.lɪ.am/ daughter.F.ACC.SG in /ɪn/ into(+ACC) mātrimōnium /maː.trɪˈmoː.nɪ.ʊm/ marriage.N.ACC.SG dūxerat /ˈduːk.sɛ.rat/ lead.3SG.PLUPERF
F.4a et and cupiditāte by-desire rēgnī of-kingship adductus led-on novīs new rēbus for-things studēbat he-was-eager
F.4b et /ɛt/ and cupiditāte /kʊ.pɪ.dɪˈtaː.tɛ/ desire.F.ABL.SG rēgnī /ˈreːŋ.niː/ kingship.N.GEN.SG adductus /adˈdʊk.tʊs/ lead-on.PERF.PASS.PTCP.M.NOM.SG novīs /ˈnɔ.wiːs/ new.F.DAT.PL rēbus /ˈreː.bʊs/ thing.F.DAT.PL studēbat /stʊˈdeː.bat/ be-eager.3SG.IMPERF(+DAT)
F.5a et and quam as plūrimās very-many cīvitātēs states suō by-his-own beneficiō kindness habēre to-have obstrictās bound volēbat he-wanted
F.5b et /ɛt/ and quam /kʷam/ as.ADV(+SUPERL) plūrimās /ˈpluː.rɪ.maːs/ most.F.ACC.PL cīvitātēs /kiː.wɪˈtaː.teːs/ state.F.ACC.PL suō /ˈsʊ.oː/ his-own.N.ABL.SG beneficiō /bɛ.nɛˈfɪ.kɪ.oː/ kindness.N.ABL.SG habēre /haˈbeː.rɛ/ have.PRES.INF obstrictās /ɔbsˈtrɪk.taːs/ bind.PERF.PASS.PTCP.F.ACC.PL volēbat /wɔˈleː.bat/ want.3SG.IMPERF
F.6a Itaque and-so rem the-matter suscipit he-takes-up et and ā from Sēquanīs the-Sequani impetrat obtains ut that per through fīnēs territory suōs their-own Helvētiōs the-Helvetii īre to-go patiantur they-allow
F.6b Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ rem /rɛm/ matter.F.ACC.SG suscipit /ˈsʊs.kɪ.pɪt/ undertake.3SG.PRES et /ɛt/ and ā /aː/ from(+ABL) Sēquanīs /ˈseː.kʷa.niːs/ Sequani.M.ABL.PL impetrat /ˈɪm.pɛ.trat/ obtain.3SG.PRES ut /ʊt/ that per /pɛr/ through(+ACC) fīnēs /ˈfiː.neːs/ territory.M.ACC.PL suōs /ˈsʊ.oːs/ their-own.M.ACC.PL Helvētiōs /hɛlˈweː.tɪ.oːs/ Helvetii.M.ACC.PL īre /ˈiː.rɛ/ go.PRES.INF patiantur /pa.tɪˈan.tʊr/ allow.3PL.PRES.SUBJ.DEP
F.7a obsidēsque and-hostages utī that inter between sēsē themselves dent they-give perficit he-brings-about
F.7b obsidēsque /ɔb.sɪˈdeːs.kʷɛ/ hostage.M.ACC.PL-and utī /ˈʊ.tiː/ that inter /ˈɪn.tɛr/ between(+ACC) sēsē /ˈseː.seː/ themselves.ACC.REFL dent /dɛnt/ give.3PL.PRES.SUBJ perficit /ˈpɛr.fɪ.kɪt/ accomplish.3SG.PRES
F.8a Sēquanī the-Sequani nē that-not itinere from-the-route Helvētiōs the-Helvetii prohibeant they-may-keep Helvētiī the-Helvetii ut that sine without maleficiō harm et and iniūriā wrong trānseant they-may-pass-through
F.8b Sēquanī /ˈseː.kʷa.niː/ Sequani.M.NOM.PL nē /neː/ that-not itinere /ɪˈtɪ.nɛ.rɛ/ route.N.ABL.SG Helvētiōs /hɛlˈweː.tɪ.oːs/ Helvetii.M.ACC.PL prohibeant /prɔˈhɪ.bɛ.ant/ keep-from.3PL.PRES.SUBJ Helvētiī /hɛlˈweː.tɪ.iː/ Helvetii.M.NOM.PL ut /ʊt/ that sine /ˈsɪ.nɛ/ without(+ABL) maleficiō /ma.lɛˈfɪ.kɪ.oː/ harm.N.ABL.SG et /ɛt/ and iniūriā /ɪnˈjuː.rɪ.aː/ wrong.F.ABL.SG trānseant /ˈtraːn.sɛ.ant/ pass-through.3PL.PRES.SUBJ
Part F-B: The Text from F-A with Translation
Dumnorīx grātiā et largītiōne apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus, quod ex eā cīvitāte Orgetorīgis fīliam in mātrimōnium dūxerat, et cupiditāte rēgnī adductus novīs rēbus studēbat et quam plūrimās cīvitātēs suō beneficiō habēre obstrictās volēbat. Itaque rem suscipit et ā Sēquanīs impetrat ut per fīnēs suōs Helvētiōs īre patiantur, obsidēsque utī inter sēsē dent perficit: Sēquanī, nē itinere Helvētiōs prohibeant, Helvētiī, ut sine maleficiō et iniūriā trānseant.
→ "Dumnorix had very great power among the Sequani through his influence and his bribes, and he was friendly to the Helvetii, because he had married the daughter of Orgetorix from that state; and, led on by the desire to be king, he was eager for revolution and wanted to have as many states as possible bound to him by his favours. And so he takes the matter on, and obtains from the Sequani that they allow the Helvetii to go through their territory, and he arranges that they exchange hostages: the Sequani, that they will not keep the Helvetii from the route; the Helvetii, that they will pass through without harm or wrongdoing."
Part F-C: Original Latin Text Only
Dumnorīx grātiā et largītiōne apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus, quod ex eā cīvitāte Orgetorīgis fīliam in mātrimōnium dūxerat, et cupiditāte rēgnī adductus novīs rēbus studēbat et quam plūrimās cīvitātēs suō beneficiō habēre obstrictās volēbat. Itaque rem suscipit et ā Sēquanīs impetrat ut per fīnēs suōs Helvētiōs īre patiantur, obsidēsque utī inter sēsē dent perficit: Sēquanī, nē itinere Helvētiōs prohibeant, Helvētiī, ut sine maleficiō et iniūriā trānseant.
Part F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
The passage shows exactly what itaque is for. The first sentence is a long list of causes, all in past tenses: Dumnorix had great power among the Sequani (poterat), he was friendly to the Helvetii (erat amīcus), and the reason for that friendship is given in a quod clause (dūxerat, pluperfect, because the marriage came first). Then come his ambitions (studēbat, volēbat). The second sentence opens with itaque and gives the result: rem suscipit, "he takes the matter on." Caesar sets out the motives first so that Dumnorix's action follows from them; the reader is meant to see him as a dangerous, ambitious man before he acts.
The change of tense matters. The causes are in the imperfect and pluperfect, the background. The action after itaque is in the historic present (suscipit, impetrat, perficit), the vivid foreground. After these historic presents the subjunctives that depend on them are present too (patiantur, dent, prohibeant, trānseant): Caesar here treats the historic present as a present tense for the sequence of tenses. Compare 208.12, where a historic present takes an imperfect subjunctive. Both are found in Caesar.
Impetrō ut + subjunctive means "to obtain (by asking) that…": the Sequani allow the Helvetii to pass. Perficiō ut + subjunctive means "to bring it about that…". Here Caesar writes utī, an older form of ut, and puts the object obsidēs before it for emphasis: "and hostages, that they exchange them, he brings about." Inter sēsē dare, "to give among themselves," means "to give to one another," "to exchange."
The last clause is an explanation in apposition after the colon. Each people's hostages are a guarantee: the Sequani give them so that they will not block the route (nē… prohibeant, a negative purpose clause; prohibēre aliquem aliquā rē, "to keep someone from something," takes the ablative itinere), and the Helvetii give them so that they will pass without harm (ut… trānseant). The verbs of the two clauses are understood from obsidēs dent.
Other points: novīs rēbus studēre (dative after studeō) is the regular phrase for "to be eager for revolution"; novae rēs means "political change." Quam with a superlative, quam plūrimās, means "as many as possible." Grātiā et largītiōne are ablatives of means. Dumnorix is the brother of Diviciacus (208.12); Orgetorix had been the leader of the Helvetii.
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This is a short dialogue composed for this lesson (it is not a quotation). Two friends, Gaius and Titus, plan a trip from Rome to Ostia to see the sea. Gaius speaks the even-numbered lines (208.16, 208.18 …) and Titus the odd-numbered ones (208.17, 208.19 …). From 208.24 the scene is the next morning. Every line uses itaque to draw a consequence.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
208.16a Salvē hello, Tite Titus! Crās tomorrow Ōstiam to-Ostia īre to-go volō I-want; itaque and-so tē you quaerēbam I-was-looking-for.
208.16b Salvē /ˈsal.weː/ be-well.2SG.IMPV Tite /ˈtɪ.tɛ/ Titus.M.VOC.SG Crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV Ōstiam /ˈoːs.tɪ.am/ Ostia.F.ACC.SG īre /ˈiː.rɛ/ go.PRES.INF volō /ˈwɔ.loː/ want.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ tē /teː/ you.ACC.SG quaerēbam /kʷae̯ˈreː.bam/ seek.1SG.IMPERF
208.17a Ego I quoque also mare the-sea vidēre to-see cupiō desire; itaque and-so tēcum with-you veniam I-will-come.
208.17b Ego /ˈɛ.ɡɔ/ I.NOM.SG quoque /ˈkʷɔ.kʷɛ/ also mare /ˈma.rɛ/ sea.N.ACC.SG vidēre /wɪˈdeː.rɛ/ see.PRES.INF cupiō /ˈkʊ.pɪ.oː/ desire.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ tēcum /ˈteː.kʊm/ you.ABL.SG-with veniam /ˈwɛ.nɪ.am/ come.1SG.FUT
208.18a Via the-road longa long est is; itaque and-so prīmā at-first lūce light proficīscēmur we-will-set-out.
208.18b Via /ˈwɪ.a/ road.F.NOM.SG longa /ˈlɔŋ.ɡa/ long.F.NOM.SG est /ɛst/ be.3SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ prīmā /ˈpriː.maː/ first.F.ABL.SG lūce /ˈluː.kɛ/ light.F.ABL.SG proficīscēmur /prɔ.fɪ.kiːsˈkeː.mʊr/ set-out.1PL.FUT.DEP
208.19a Sed but equum a-horse nōn not habeō I-have; itaque and-so pedibus on-foot ībō I-will-go.
208.19b Sed /sɛd/ but equum /ˈɛ.kʷʊm/ horse.M.ACC.SG nōn /noːn/ not habeō /ˈha.bɛ.oː/ have.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ pedibus /ˈpɛ.dɪ.bʊs/ foot.M.ABL.PL ībō /ˈiː.boː/ go.1SG.FUT
208.20a Frāter brother meus my duōs two equōs horses habet has; itaque and-so alterum one-of-the-two tibi to-you dabit he-will-give.
208.20b Frāter /ˈfraː.tɛr/ brother.M.NOM.SG meus /ˈmɛ.ʊs/ my.M.NOM.SG duōs /ˈdʊ.oːs/ two.M.ACC.PL equōs /ˈɛ.kʷoːs/ horse.M.ACC.PL habet /ˈha.bɛt/ have.3SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ alterum /ˈal.tɛ.rʊm/ other-of-two.M.ACC.SG tibi /ˈtɪ.bɪ/ you.DAT.SG dabit /ˈda.bɪt/ give.3SG.FUT
208.21a Optimē excellent! Itaque and-so nōn not necesse necessary est it-is ambulāre to-walk.
208.21b Optimē /ˈɔp.tɪ.meː/ well.ADV.SUPERL Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ nōn /noːn/ not necesse /nɛˈkɛs.sɛ/ necessary.INDECL est /ɛst/ be.3SG.PRES ambulāre /am.bʊˈlaː.rɛ/ walk.PRES.INF
208.22a Caelum the-sky tamen however nūbilum cloudy est is; itaque and-so paenulam a-rain-cloak fer bring.
208.22b Caelum /ˈkae̯.lʊm/ sky.N.NOM.SG tamen /ˈta.mɛn/ however.ADV nūbilum /ˈnuː.bɪ.lʊm/ cloudy.N.NOM.SG est /ɛst/ be.3SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ paenulam /ˈpae̯.nʊ.lam/ cloak.F.ACC.SG fer /fɛr/ bring.2SG.IMPV
208.23a Paenula cloak mea my vetus old est is; itaque and-so novam a-new-one emam I-will-buy.
208.23b Paenula /ˈpae̯.nʊ.la/ cloak.F.NOM.SG mea /ˈmɛ.a/ my.F.NOM.SG vetus /ˈwɛ.tʊs/ old.F.NOM.SG est /ɛst/ be.3SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ novam /ˈnɔ.wam/ new.F.ACC.SG emam /ˈɛ.mam/ buy.1SG.FUT
208.24a Pluit it-is-raining, Tite Titus! Viae the-roads lutulentae muddy sunt are; itaque and-so hodiē today nōn not proficīscēmur we-will-set-out.
208.24b Pluit /ˈplʊ.ɪt/ rain.3SG.PRES.IMPERS Tite /ˈtɪ.tɛ/ Titus.M.VOC.SG Viae /ˈwɪ.ae̯/ road.F.NOM.PL lutulentae /lʊ.tʊˈlɛn.tae̯/ muddy.F.NOM.PL sunt /sʊnt/ be.3PL.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ hodiē /ˈhɔ.dɪ.eː/ today.ADV nōn /noːn/ not proficīscēmur /prɔ.fɪ.kiːsˈkeː.mʊr/ set-out.1PL.FUT.DEP
208.25a Iam already omnia everything parāveram I-had-prepared; itaque and-so molestē with-annoyance ferō I-bear-it.
208.25b Iam /jam/ already.ADV omnia /ˈɔm.nɪ.a/ all.N.ACC.PL parāveram /paˈraː.wɛ.ram/ prepare.1SG.PLUPERF itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ molestē /mɔˈlɛs.teː/ annoyingly.ADV ferō /ˈfɛ.roː/ bear.1SG.PRES
208.26a Nōlī do-not querī to-complain! Crās tomorrow sōl the-sun lūcēbit will-shine; itaque and-so crās tomorrow ībimus we-will-go.
208.26b Nōlī /ˈnoː.liː/ not-want.2SG.IMPV querī /ˈkʷɛ.riː/ complain.PRES.INF.DEP Crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV sōl /soːl/ sun.M.NOM.SG lūcēbit /luːˈkeː.bɪt/ shine.3SG.FUT itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV ībimus /ˈiː.bɪ.mʊs/ go.1PL.FUT
208.27a Bene good. Itaque and-so hodiē today domī at-home manēbimus we-will-stay.
208.27b Bene /ˈbɛ.nɛ/ well.ADV Itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ hodiē /ˈhɔ.dɪ.eː/ today.ADV domī /ˈdɔ.miː/ home.F.LOC.SG manēbimus /maˈneː.bɪ.mʊs/ stay.1PL.FUT
208.28a Tālōs knucklebones habeō I-have; itaque and-so tālīs with-knucklebones lūdāmus let-us-play!
208.28b Tālōs /ˈtaː.loːs/ knucklebone.M.ACC.PL habeō /ˈha.bɛ.oː/ have.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ tālīs /ˈtaː.liːs/ knucklebone.M.ABL.PL lūdāmus /luːˈdaː.mʊs/ play.1PL.PRES.SUBJ
208.29a Ego I semper always vincō win; itaque and-so pecūniam money tuam your servā keep!
208.29b Ego /ˈɛ.ɡɔ/ I.NOM.SG semper /ˈsɛm.pɛr/ always.ADV vincō /ˈwɪŋ.koː/ win.1SG.PRES itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ pecūniam /pɛˈkuː.nɪ.am/ money.F.ACC.SG tuam /ˈtʊ.am/ your.F.ACC.SG servā /ˈsɛr.waː/ keep.2SG.IMPV
208.30a Hodiē today fortūna Fortune mihi me favet favours; itaque and-so nihil nothing timeō I-fear.
208.30b Hodiē /ˈhɔ.dɪ.eː/ today.ADV fortūna /fɔrˈtuː.na/ fortune.F.NOM.SG mihi /ˈmɪ.hɪ/ I.DAT.SG favet /ˈfa.wɛt/ favour.3SG.PRES(+DAT) itaque /ˈɪ.ta.kʷɛ/ therefore.CONJ nihil /ˈnɪ.hɪl/ nothing.N.ACC.SG timeō /ˈtɪ.mɛ.oː/ fear.1SG.PRES
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Part B: Natural Sentences
208.16 Salvē, Tite! Crās Ōstiam īre volō; itaque tē quaerēbam. → GAIUS: "Hello, Titus! I want to go to Ostia tomorrow, so I was looking for you."
208.17 Ego quoque mare vidēre cupiō; itaque tēcum veniam. → TITUS: "I'm longing to see the sea too, so I'll come with you."
208.18 Via longa est; itaque prīmā lūce proficīscēmur. → GAIUS: "It's a long road, so we'll set out at first light."
208.19 Sed equum nōn habeō; itaque pedibus ībō. → TITUS: "But I haven't got a horse, so I'll go on foot."
208.20 Frāter meus duōs equōs habet; itaque alterum tibi dabit. → GAIUS: "My brother has two horses, so he'll give you one of them."
208.21 Optimē! Itaque nōn necesse est ambulāre. → TITUS: "Excellent! So there's no need to walk."
208.22 Caelum tamen nūbilum est; itaque paenulam fer. → GAIUS: "The sky is cloudy, though, so bring a rain-cloak."
208.23 Paenula mea vetus est; itaque novam emam. → TITUS: "My cloak is old, so I'll buy a new one."
208.24 Pluit, Tite! Viae lutulentae sunt; itaque hodiē nōn proficīscēmur. → GAIUS (the next morning): "It's raining, Titus! The roads are muddy, so we won't set out today."
208.25 Iam omnia parāveram; itaque molestē ferō. → TITUS: "I had everything ready already, so I'm annoyed."
208.26 Nōlī querī! Crās sōl lūcēbit; itaque crās ībimus. → GAIUS: "Don't complain! The sun will shine tomorrow, so we'll go tomorrow."
208.27 Bene. Itaque hodiē domī manēbimus. → TITUS: "Fine. So today we'll stay at home."
208.28 Tālōs habeō; itaque tālīs lūdāmus! → GAIUS: "I've got knucklebones, so let's play!"
208.29 Ego semper vincō; itaque pecūniam tuam servā! → TITUS: "I always win, so hang on to your money!"
208.30 Hodiē fortūna mihi favet; itaque nihil timeō. → GAIUS: "Fortune is on my side today, so I'm not afraid of anything."
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Part C: Latin Text Only
208.16 Salvē, Tite! Crās Ōstiam īre volō; itaque tē quaerēbam.
208.17 Ego quoque mare vidēre cupiō; itaque tēcum veniam.
208.18 Via longa est; itaque prīmā lūce proficīscēmur.
208.19 Sed equum nōn habeō; itaque pedibus ībō.
208.20 Frāter meus duōs equōs habet; itaque alterum tibi dabit.
208.21 Optimē! Itaque nōn necesse est ambulāre.
208.22 Caelum tamen nūbilum est; itaque paenulam fer.
208.23 Paenula mea vetus est; itaque novam emam.
208.24 Pluit, Tite! Viae lutulentae sunt; itaque hodiē nōn proficīscēmur.
208.25 Iam omnia parāveram; itaque molestē ferō.
208.26 Nōlī querī! Crās sōl lūcēbit; itaque crās ībimus.
208.27 Bene. Itaque hodiē domī manēbimus.
208.28 Tālōs habeō; itaque tālīs lūdāmus!
208.29 Ego semper vincō; itaque pecūniam tuam servā!
208.30 Hodiē fortūna mihi favet; itaque nihil timeō.
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Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
In conversation itaque is followed by every kind of sentence: a statement in the present (208.21, 208.25, 208.30), in the imperfect (208.16) or in the future (208.17, 208.18, 208.19, 208.20, 208.23, 208.24, 208.26, 208.27), a command (fer, 208.22; servā, 208.29), and an exhortation in the present subjunctive (lūdāmus, "let us play," 208.28). Itaque itself never changes the mood; the speaker chooses it.
Itaque at the start of a reply (208.21, 208.27) draws the consequence from what the other speaker has just said: "So (in that case)…". English often says "So…" or "Then…" here.
Towns and home without a preposition. Ōstiam īre, "to go to Ostia" (208.16), uses the plain accusative of a town name for motion towards, like Bibracte īre in 208.11 and Messānam venit in 208.13. Domī (208.27) is the locative, "at home."
Pedibus īre (208.19), "to go on foot," is an ablative of means: literally "to go with the feet."
Alterum (208.20) is "the other of two," "one of the two": the brother has exactly two horses.
Nōlī + infinitive (208.26) is the polite negative command: nōlī querī, "don't complain." Querī is the infinitive of the deponent queror.
Molestē ferre (208.25), "to bear (something) with annoyance," is the regular Latin way of saying "to be annoyed at, to take badly."
Tālīs lūdere (208.28) means "to play at knucklebones," with the ablative of the thing played with. Tālī were small bones with four long sides marked with different values, thrown like dice.
Favēre takes the dative (208.30): fortūna mihi favet, "Fortune favours me."
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Vowel length. The macrons in this lesson mark long vowels. They are editorial aids: Romans did not write them. Itaque has no long vowel at all, so it never takes a macron: ĭtăque, three short syllables.
Stress. Latin stress falls on the second-to-last syllable if that syllable is heavy, and otherwise on the third-from-last. Itaque follows this rule: Í-ta-que. Most words that end in the enclitic -que move the stress to the syllable before it: ob-si-DĒS-que (F.7), e-Ō-que (208.13). Itaque, which has become a single word, does not: say Í-ta-que, not i-TA-que.
Syllables before tr and br. In impetrat (F.6) and Bibracte (208.11) the consonant pairs tr and br may begin the next syllable. In prose the syllable before them counts as light, so impetrat is stressed IM-pe-trat. Bibracte has ct after the a, so its second syllable is heavy and takes the stress: bi-BRAC-te.
Consonants. Qu in itaque is one sound, /kʷ/, as in English "quick"; it never makes a syllable of its own. C and g are always hard: Sēquanī, Orgetorīgis, Dīviciācus /diː.wɪ.kɪˈaː.kʊs/.
Older spellings. Utī (F.7) is an older and fuller form of ut. Iūrāstis (208.15) is shortened from iūrāvistis and relīquēre (208.14) is an alternative form of relīquērunt. Some editions of Sallust print older spellings elsewhere, such as maxumus for maximus.
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