← Latin for Soldiers, Sailors and Military Strategists
The preposition per is one of the most versatile and frequently used prepositions in Latin military texts. It governs the accusative case and has a core meaning of "through," but extends to many related concepts including "throughout," "during," "by means of," and "on account of." For military commanders and strategists, understanding per is essential as it appears constantly in descriptions of troop movements, duration of campaigns, and methods of warfare.
Definition: per (preposition + accusative) = through, throughout, during, by means of, by, on account of
Question: What does "per" mean in Latin? Answer: Per is a Latin preposition that takes the accusative case and primarily means "through." It can also mean "throughout," "during," "by means of," or "on account of" depending on context.
In this lesson, you'll encounter per in various military contexts: -
Movement through territories (per silvās - through the forests) -
Duration of military actions (per noctem - through/during the night) -
Means of achieving objectives (per vim - by force) -
Distribution across space or time (per castra - throughout the camp)
Subject: Latin Language Learning Level: Beginner to Intermediate Focus: Military Latin Vocabulary and Grammar Lesson Type: Reading Comprehension with Grammar Explanation Target Audience: English-speaking autodidacts interested in Roman military history
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Per always takes the accusative case -
Physical movement "through" is the primary meaning -
Temporal uses indicate duration ("throughout/during") -
Instrumental uses show means or method ("by means of") -
Common in military contexts for troop movements and tactical descriptions
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30.1 Mīlitēs soldiers per through silvās forests prōcēdunt advance
30.2 Per through noctem night hostēs enemies fugiunt flee
30.3 Dux leader exercitum army per through montēs mountains dūcit leads
30.4 Nāvēs ships per through frētum strait nāvigant sail
30.5 Per by means of explōrātōrēs scouts dux commander omnia everything cognōscit learns
30.6 Equitēs cavalry per through campōs plains celeriter quickly currunt run
30.7 Per throughout tōtam whole noctem night vigilēs guards castra camp custōdiunt guard
30.8 Legiōnēs legions per through prōvinciam province iter march faciunt make
30.9 Per by means of dolum trick urbem city Graecī Greeks capiunt capture
30.10 Sagittāriī archers per through nebulam fog tēla missiles mittunt send
30.11 Per during hiemem winter mīlitēs soldiers in in hībernīs winter quarters manent remain
30.12 Imperātor general per through nūntiōs messengers litterās letters mittit sends
30.13 Per through angustum narrow pontem bridge agmen column trānsit crosses
30.14 Hostēs enemies per by means of vim force portās gates frangunt break
30.15 Per throughout decem ten annōs years Rōmānī Romans Galliam Gaul expugnant conquer
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30.1 Mīlitēs per silvās prōcēdunt. The soldiers advance through the forests.
30.2 Per noctem hostēs fugiunt. The enemies flee during the night.
30.3 Dux exercitum per montēs dūcit. The leader leads the army through the mountains.
30.4 Nāvēs per frētum nāvigant. The ships sail through the strait.
30.5 Per explōrātōrēs dux omnia cognōscit. The commander learns everything through scouts.
30.6 Equitēs per campōs celeriter currunt. The cavalry run quickly through the plains.
30.7 Per tōtam noctem vigilēs castra custōdiunt. Throughout the entire night the guards protect the camp.
30.8 Legiōnēs per prōvinciam iter faciunt. The legions march through the province.
30.9 Per dolum urbem Graecī capiunt. The Greeks capture the city by means of a trick.
30.10 Sagittāriī per nebulam tēla mittunt. The archers shoot missiles through the fog.
30.11 Per hiemem mīlitēs in hībernīs manent. During winter the soldiers remain in winter quarters.
30.12 Imperātor per nūntiōs litterās mittit. The general sends letters through messengers.
30.13 Per angustum pontem agmen trānsit. The column crosses through the narrow bridge.
30.14 Hostēs per vim portās frangunt. The enemies break the gates by force.
30.15 Per decem annōs Rōmānī Galliam expugnant. For ten years the Romans conquer Gaul.
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30.1 Mīlitēs per silvās prōcēdunt.
30.2 Per noctem hostēs fugiunt.
30.3 Dux exercitum per montēs dūcit.
30.4 Nāvēs per frētum nāvigant.
30.5 Per explōrātōrēs dux omnia cognōscit.
30.6 Equitēs per campōs celeriter currunt.
30.7 Per tōtam noctem vigilēs castra custōdiunt.
30.8 Legiōnēs per prōvinciam iter faciunt.
30.9 Per dolum urbem Graecī capiunt.
30.10 Sagittāriī per nebulam tēla mittunt.
30.11 Per hiemem mīlitēs in hībernīs manent.
30.12 Imperātor per nūntiōs litterās mittit.
30.13 Per angustum pontem agmen trānsit.
30.14 Hostēs per vim portās frangunt.
30.15 Per decem annōs Rōmānī Galliam expugnant.
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The preposition per is one of the most important and versatile prepositions in Latin, especially in military contexts. Here are the essential grammar rules: -
Case Government: Per ALWAYS takes the accusative case. There are no exceptions to this rule. -
Basic Meanings: -
Spatial: "through" (physical movement through a space) -
Temporal: "throughout, during" (duration of time) -
Instrumental: "by means of, by, through" (method or agent) -
Distributive: "throughout, among" (distribution across space/time) -
Word Order: Like most prepositions, per typically precedes its object, though in poetry it may occasionally follow for metrical reasons.
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Wrong Case: The most common error is using per with ablative instead of accusative. Remember: per ALWAYS takes accusative. -
Wrong: per silvīs (ablative) -
Correct: per silvās (accusative) -
Confusing with Other Prepositions: -
per (through) vs. trāns (across): per emphasizes movement through the middle, trāns emphasizes crossing from one side to another -
per (during) vs. in + ablative (in/during): per emphasizes duration throughout, in emphasizes a point within -
Overusing English "for" Translation: While per decem annōs means "for ten years," not every English "for" translates to per. Purpose uses ad or causā.
Unlike English, which uses different words for different meanings ("through," "by," "during"), Latin uses per for all these concepts. English speakers must learn to recognize context: -
Movement: per silvās = through the forests -
Time: per noctem = during/through the night -
Means: per vim = by force -
Agent: per nūntiōs = through/by messengers
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Identify the meaning needed (spatial, temporal, instrumental) -
Put the noun after per in the accusative case -
Check the ending: -
1st declension: -am (singular), -ās (plural) -
2nd declension: -um (singular), -ōs (plural) -
3rd declension: -em or consonant (singular), -ēs (plural) -
Place per + accusative in the sentence (usually before the verb)
Preposition: per Case Required: Accusative only Primary Meanings: through, throughout, during, by means of Common Phrases: -
per diem (through the day, daily) -
per annum (through the year, annually) -
per sē (through itself, by itself) -
per deōs! (by the gods! - oath)
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Understanding per in Roman military culture requires recognizing how central movement and duration were to Roman warfare. The Roman military machine succeeded through its ability to move troops efficiently per prōvinciās (through provinces) and maintain campaigns per multōs annōs (through many years).
Roman military dispatches frequently use per to describe: -
Tactical movements: Moving troops per silvās (through forests) for surprise attacks -
Strategic planning: Campaigns lasting per hiemem (through winter) despite traditional cessation of warfare -
Intelligence networks: Information traveling per explōrātōrēs (through scouts) and per nūntiōs (through messengers) -
Engineering feats: Building roads per montēs (through mountains) to enable rapid deployment
The phrase per aspera ad astra ("through difficulties to the stars") embodies the Roman military mentality—achievement through perseverance. This cultural value appears throughout military writings where obstacles are overcome per virtūtem (through courage) and per disciplīnam (through discipline).
Roman naval operations particularly relied on understanding routes per maria (through the seas) and per frēta (through straits). The ability to move fleets per Mediterrāneum (through the Mediterranean) was crucial to maintaining the empire.
For modern students of military history, recognizing these uses of per helps decode primary sources and understand how Romans conceptualized military movement, duration, and methodology.
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From Caesar's Commentāriī dē Bellō Gallicō, Book II, Chapter 16:
"Hīs rēbus cognitīs, Caesar Gallōrum animōs verbīs cōnfīrmāvit pollicitusque est sibi eam rem cūrae futūram; magnam sē habēre spem et beneficiō suō et auctōritāte adductum Ariovistum fīnem iniūriīs factūrum. Hāc ōrātiōne habitā, concilium dīmīsit. Et secundum ea multae rēs eum hortābantur quārē sibi eam rem cōgitandam et suscipiendam putāret, in prīmīs quod Aeduōs, frātrēs cōnsanguineōsque saepe numerō ā senātū appellātōs, in servitūte atque diciōne vidēbat Germānōrum tenērī."
Per through lēgātōs envoys Caesar Caesar dē about hīs these rēbus matters certior more certain/informed factus having been made est was. Hostēs the enemies per through prōvinciam the province nostram our iter a journey facere to make cōnātōs having attempted esse to be.
"Per lēgātōs Caesar dē hīs rēbus certior factus est. Hostēs per prōvinciam nostram iter facere cōnātōs esse."
Through envoys Caesar was informed about these matters. (He learned) that the enemies had attempted to make a journey through our province.
Per lēgātōs Caesar dē hīs rēbus certior factus est. Hostēs per prōvinciam nostram iter facere cōnātōs esse.
This passage demonstrates two key uses of per: -
per lēgātōs - Instrumental use meaning "through/by means of envoys." The accusative plural ending -ōs shows proper case agreement. -
per prōvinciam nostram - Spatial use meaning "through our province." Note the accusative singular -am ending and how the adjective nostram agrees in case, number, and gender.
The sentence structure shows typical Latin indirect discourse with factus est (was made/was informed) followed by an accusative-infinitive construction (hostēs...cōnātōs esse). The use of per here is essential to understanding both how Caesar received intelligence and the enemy's intended route of march.
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Here are the translations with per/through highlighted in each sentence:
30.16 Through the spies, the tribune learned the plans of the enemies.
30.17 For three whole days, the legion remained without food.
30.18 The centurion led the soldiers through difficult marshes.
30.19 By means of the tortoise-formation, the soldiers attacked the wall.
30.20 The cargo ships came through a great storm.
30.21 Throughout the camp, the commander inspected all the ranks.
30.22 During the dark night, reinforcements arrived.
30.23 Through dense forests, the scouts found the enemies.
30.24 By means of siege-engines, the Romans destroyed the walls.
30.25 Through the swift river, the cavalry crossed.
30.26 During the fierce battle, the leader was wounded.
30.27 Throughout the second watch, the guards saw the enemies.
30.28 Through the narrow harbor, the fleet went out.
30.29 Through the small window, the archers threw missiles.
30.30 For many months, the siege of the city continued.
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Key Pattern: Notice how per + accusative can mean: - "through" (physical passage) - "by means of" (instrumental) - "during/throughout" (temporal) - "for" (duration)
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30.16 Tribūnus per speculātōrēs hostium cōnsilia cognovit. The tribune learned the enemy's plans through spies.
30.17 Per tōtōs trēs diēs legiō sine cibō mānsit. For three whole days the legion remained without food.
30.18 Centuriō mīlitēs per palūdēs difficilēs dūxit. The centurion led the soldiers through difficult marshes.
30.19 Per testūdinem mīlitēs mūrum oppugnāvērunt. By means of the tortoise formation the soldiers attacked the wall.
30.20 Nāvēs onerariae per tempestātem magnam vēnērunt. The cargo ships came through a great storm.
30.21 Imperātor per castra omnia ōrdinēs īnspexit. The commander inspected all ranks throughout the camp.
30.22 Per noctem obscūram auxilia advēnērunt. Reinforcements arrived through the dark night.
30.23 Explōrātōrēs per silvās dēnsās hostēs invēnērunt. The scouts found enemies through the dense forests.
30.24 Per māchinātiōnēs Rōmānī moenia dēlēvērunt. By means of siege engines the Romans destroyed the walls.
30.25 Equitātus per flūmen rapidum trānsiit. The cavalry crossed through the swift river.
30.26 Per pugnam ācrem dux vulnerātus est. During the fierce battle the leader was wounded.
30.27 Custōdēs per vigiliam secundam hostēs vīdērunt. The guards saw enemies during the second watch.
30.28 Per portum angustum classis ēgressa est. The fleet departed through the narrow harbor.
30.29 Sagittāriī per fenestram parvam tēla iēcērunt. The archers shot missiles through the small window.
30.30 Per multōs mēnsēs obsidiō urbis continuāta est. For many months the siege of the city continued.
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30.16 Tribūnus per speculātōrēs hostium cōnsilia cognovit.
30.17 Per tōtōs trēs diēs legiō sine cibō mānsit.
30.18 Centuriō mīlitēs per palūdēs difficilēs dūxit.
30.19 Per testūdinem mīlitēs mūrum oppugnāvērunt.
30.20 Nāvēs onerariae per tempestātem magnam vēnērunt.
30.21 Imperātor per castra omnia ōrdinēs īnspexit.
30.22 Per noctem obscūram auxilia advēnērunt.
30.23 Explōrātōrēs per silvās dēnsās hostēs invēnērunt.
30.24 Per māchinātiōnēs Rōmānī moenia dēlēvērunt.
30.25 Equitātus per flūmen rapidum trānsiit.
30.26 Per pugnam ācrem dux vulnerātus est.
30.27 Custōdēs per vigiliam secundam hostēs vīdērunt.
30.28 Per portum angustum classis ēgressa est.
30.29 Sagittāriī per fenestram parvam tēla iēcērunt.
30.30 Per multōs mēnsēs obsidiō urbis continuāta est.
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This military dispatch section showcases advanced uses of per in authentic military contexts:
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Intelligence Gathering (30.16): per speculātōrēs - Shows how military intelligence moved through spy networks -
Duration Under Hardship (30.17): per tōtōs trēs diēs - Emphasizes complete duration with tōtōs reinforcing the extent -
Tactical Formations (30.19): per testūdinem - Technical military term where per indicates the means of assault -
Natural Obstacles (30.18, 30.20, 30.23, 30.25): -
per palūdēs difficilēs - through difficult terrain -
per tempestātem magnam - through adverse weather -
per silvās dēnsās - through concealing terrain -
per flūmen rapidum - through water obstacles -
Time Divisions (30.27): per vigiliam secundam - Military watches divided the night; per marks duration of specific watch
Notice how adjectives agree with the nouns after per: -
per palūdēs difficilēs - accusative plural feminine -
per noctem obscūram - accusative singular feminine -
per flūmen rapidum - accusative singular neuter -
per multōs mēnsēs - accusative plural masculine
The dispatch shows natural Latin word order: -
per at sentence beginning for emphasis (30.17, 30.22, 30.26, 30.30) -
per embedded mid-sentence for narrative flow (30.16, 30.18, 30.19) -
Split phrases like per noctem obscūram where adjective follows noun
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per testūdinem - the "tortoise" formation with shields overhead -
per māchinātiōnēs - siege engines (ballistae, catapults) -
per vigiliam - the night watches (four divisions) -
per speculātōrēs - military scouts/spies -
per portum - naval terminology
These examples demonstrate how per was essential to Roman military communication, conveying precise information about movement, duration, and methodology in combat situations.
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The Latinum Institute's Latin Reading Course uses a unique comprehension-based method developed by Evan der Millner BA MA (Cantab. NZ, London), who has been creating innovative online language learning materials since 2006. This approach, detailed at latinum.substack.com and latinum.org.uk, is specifically designed for autodidacts—self-directed learners who want to read Latin fluently.
These lessons follow the "construed text" principle, where Latin and English are carefully interleaved to build automatic comprehension. Each lesson progresses through: -
Part A: Extremely granular word-by-word glossing for beginners 30.16 Tribūnus tribune per through speculātōrēs spies hostium of enemies cōnsilia plans cognovit learned
30.17 Per through tōtōs whole trēs three diēs days legiō legion sine without cibō food mānsit remained
30.18 Centuriō centurion mīlitēs soldiers per through palūdēs marshes difficilēs difficult dūxit led
30.19 Per by means of testūdinem tortoise-formation mīlitēs soldiers mūrum wall oppugnāvērunt attacked
30.20 Nāvēs ships onerariae cargo per through tempestātem storm magnam great vēnērunt came
30.21 Imperātor commander per throughout castra camp omnia all ōrdinēs ranks īnspexit inspected
30.22 Per through noctem night obscūram dark auxilia reinforcements advēnērunt arrived
30.23 Explōrātōrēs scouts per through silvās forests dēnsās dense hostēs enemies invēnērunt found
30.24 Per by means of māchinātiōnēs siege-engines Rōmānī Romans moenia walls dēlēvērunt destroyed
30.25 Equitātus cavalry per through flūmen river rapidum swift trānsiit crossed
30.26 Per during pugnam battle ācrem fierce dux leader vulnerātus wounded est was
30.27 Custōdēs guards per throughout vigiliam watch secundam second hostēs enemies vīdērunt saw
30.28 Per through portum harbor angustum narrow classis fleet ēgressa having gone out est was
30.29 Sagittāriī archers per through fenestram window parvam small tēla missiles iēcērunt threw
30.30 Per for multōs many mēnsēs months obsidiō siege urbis of city continuāta continued est was
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