← Latin for Soldiers, Sailors and Military Strategists
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ⁵⁷ ◊ᵉⁿⁱᵐ
Welcome to Lesson 57 of Latin for Soldiers, Sailors and Military Strategists. Today’s word is the conjunction enim, “for.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 57th among all Latin words. Enim is the word of the reason. A commander gives an order, and enim gives the reason for it: we fortify the camp, for night is coming on; we stay in harbour, for the wind is against us. Roman writers on war use it all the time, because a report, a speech or a manual has to explain as well as state. When you meet enim, the sentence is telling you why.
What does enim mean in Latin?
Enim means “for,” in the sense of “because, you see, in fact.” It joins a sentence to the one before it and explains it: Castra mūnīmus; nox enim appropinquat, “We fortify the camp, for night is coming on.” It never changes its form.
Where does enim stand in the sentence?
Never first. Enim is postpositive: it normally stands second, after the first word of its clause (hostēs enim adsunt), or after a first group of words that belong closely together (nōn enim, neque enim, quid enim). English puts “for” at the head of the clause, so the translator must move it to the front: hostēs enim adsunt is “for the enemy are here.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English “for” is also a preposition (“for the general,” “for three days”). Latin enim is only a connective: it never governs a noun. “For the general” is prō duce or ducī; “for three days” is trēs diēs. Enim is used only where English could say “because” or “you see.” Latin also has a second word for “for,” nam, which stands first in its clause. Nam hostēs adsunt and hostēs enim adsunt mean the same.
Etymology: Lewis and Short compare enim with nam; its exact origin is uncertain. It has left no word in English. The compounds etenim, “and indeed, for,” and enimvērō, “yes indeed, to be sure,” are formed from it.
Key Takeaways
✦ Enim is an indeclinable conjunction meaning “for, because, you see, in fact”: it explains what has just been said
✦ It is postpositive: second word in its clause, never first; in English “for” goes to the front
✦ Common groups: nōn enim and neque enim (“for … not”), quid enim? (“why, what …?”), at enim (“but, it may be said”)
✦ Etenim (“and indeed, for”) and nam (“for”) stand first; enim does not
✦ Enim does not change the mood of the verb, and it never governs a noun: “for the legion” is never *enim legiō
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enim /ˈe.nim/: two short syllables, E-nim, with the stress on the first. The e is short, as in English “pet”; the i is short, as in “bit.” Do not say “ee-nim.”
etenim /ˈe.te.nim/: three short syllables, stress on the first: E-te-nim.
neque enim /ˈne.kʷe ˈe.nim/: in speech and verse the final e of neque runs into the e of enim: NE-kwe-nim.
enimvērō /e.nimˈweː.roː/: stress on the long vē: e-nim-WĒ-rō.
This course gives the restored classical pronunciation: c is always /k/, v is /w/, ae is /ae̯/ as in “eye,” qu is /kʷ/.
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57.1a Hostēs the-enemy enim for adsunt are-here
57.1b Hostēs /ˈhos.teːs/ enemy.NOM.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ adsunt /ˈad.sunt/ be-present.3PL.PRES
57.2a Nōn not enim for timēmus we-fear
57.2b Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ timēmus /tiˈmeː.mus/ fear.1PL.PRES
57.3a Mīles the-soldier enim for vigilat is-on-watch
57.3b Mīles /ˈmiː.les/ soldier.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ vigilat /ˈwi.ɡi.lat/ keep-watch.3SG.PRES
57.4a Bellum war enim for īnstat is-at-hand
57.4b Bellum /ˈbel.lum/ war.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ īnstat /ˈiːn.stat/ be-at-hand.3SG.PRES
57.5a Nāvis the-ship enim for parāta ready est is
57.5b Nāvis /ˈnaː.wis/ ship.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ parāta /paˈraː.ta/ ready.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.6a Castra the-camp mūnīmus we-fortify nox night enim for appropinquat is-approaching
57.6b Castra /ˈkas.tra/ camp.ACC.N.PL mūnīmus /muːˈniː.mus/ fortify.1PL.PRES nox /noks/ night.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ appropinquat /ap.proˈpin.kʷat/ approach.3SG.PRES
57.7a Nautae the-sailors portum the-harbour petunt make-for mare the-sea enim for turbidum rough est is
57.7b Nautae /ˈnau̯.tae̯/ sailor.NOM.M.PL portum /ˈpor.tum/ harbour.ACC.M.SG petunt /ˈpe.tunt/ seek.3PL.PRES mare /ˈma.re/ sea.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ turbidum /ˈtur.bi.dum/ rough.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.8a Dux the-general equitēs the-cavalry praemittit sends-ahead iter the-route enim for ignōtum unknown est is
57.8b Dux /duks/ general.NOM.M.SG equitēs /ˈe.kʷi.teːs/ horseman.ACC.M.PL praemittit /prae̯ˈmit.tit/ send-ahead.3SG.PRES iter /ˈi.ter/ route.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ ignōtum /iɡˈnoː.tum/ unknown.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.9a Nēmō no-one castra the-camp relinquat let-leave hostēs the-enemy enim for prope near sunt are
57.9b Nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG castra /ˈkas.tra/ camp.ACC.N.PL relinquat /reˈlin.kʷat/ leave.3SG.PRES.SUBJ hostēs /ˈhos.teːs/ enemy.NOM.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ prope /ˈpro.pe/ near.ADV sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES
57.10a Neque not enim for sine without frūmentō grain exercitus an-army diū for-long pugnāre to-fight potest is-able
57.10b Neque /ˈne.kʷe/ and-not.CONJ enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL frūmentō /fruːˈmen.toː/ grain.ABL.N.SG exercitus /ekˈser.ki.tus/ army.NOM.M.SG diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV pugnāre /puɡˈnaː.re/ fight.PRES.INF potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES
57.11a Silent are-silent enim for lēgēs the-laws inter among arma arms
57.11b Silent /ˈsi.lent/ be-silent.3PL.PRES enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.NOM.F.PL inter /ˈin.ter/ among.PREP+ACC arma /ˈar.ma/ weapon.ACC.N.PL
57.12a Saepius more-often enim for pēnūria want quam than pugna battle cōnsūmit destroys exercitum an-army et and ferrō than-steel saevior more-cruel famēs hunger est is
57.12b Saepius /ˈsae̯.pi.us/ often.ADV.COMP enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ pēnūria /peːˈnuː.ri.a/ want.NOM.F.SG quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ pugna /ˈpuɡ.na/ battle.NOM.F.SG cōnsūmit /koːnˈsuː.mit/ destroy.3SG.PRES exercitum /ekˈser.ki.tum/ army.ACC.M.SG et /et/ and.CONJ ferrō /ˈfer.roː/ iron.ABL.N.SG saevior /ˈsae̯.wi.or/ cruel.COMP.NOM.F.SG famēs /ˈfa.meːs/ hunger.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.13a Scientia knowledge enim for reī of-the-matter bellicae of-war dīmicandī of-fighting nūtrit nourishes audāciam the-boldness nēmō no-one facere to-do metuit fears quod what sē himself bene well didicisse to-have-learned cōnfīdit trusts
57.13b Scientia /skiˈen.ti.a/ knowledge.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ reī /ˈre.iː/ matter.GEN.F.SG bellicae /ˈbel.li.kae̯/ of-war.GEN.F.SG dīmicandī /diː.miˈkan.diː/ fight.GERUND.GEN.SG nūtrit /ˈnuː.trit/ nourish.3SG.PRES audāciam /au̯ˈdaː.ki.am/ boldness.ACC.F.SG nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF metuit /ˈme.tu.it/ fear.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ what.ACC.N.SG sē /seː/ self.ACC.M.SG bene /ˈbe.ne/ well.ADV didicisse /di.diˈkis.se/ learn.PERF.INF cōnfīdit /koːnˈfiː.dit/ trust.3SG.PRES
57.14a Scīre to-know enim for quibuscumque to-whomever exercitus the-army dictō to-command audiēns obedient nōn not fuerit has-been aut either male badly rē the-business gestā having-been-done fortūnam fortune dēfuisse to-have-failed aut or aliquō some facinore crime compertō having-been-discovered avāritiam greed esse to-have-been convictam proven
57.14b Scīre /ˈskiː.re/ know.PRES.INF enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ quibuscumque /kʷi.busˈkum.kʷe/ whoever.DAT.M.PL exercitus /ekˈser.ki.tus/ army.NOM.M.SG dictō /ˈdik.toː/ command.DAT.N.SG audiēns /ˈau̯.di.eːns/ obey.PRES.PART.NOM.M.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV fuerit /ˈfu.e.rit/ be.3SG.PERF.SUBJ aut /au̯t/ either.CONJ male /ˈma.le/ badly.ADV rē /reː/ thing.ABL.F.SG gestā /ˈɡes.taː/ do.PERF.PART.PASS.ABL.F.SG fortūnam /forˈtuː.nam/ fortune.ACC.F.SG dēfuisse /deː.fuˈis.se/ fail.PERF.INF aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ aliquō /ˈa.li.kʷoː/ some.ABL.N.SG facinore /faˈki.no.re/ crime.ABL.N.SG compertō /komˈper.toː/ discover.PERF.PART.PASS.ABL.N.SG avāritiam /a.waːˈri.ti.am/ greed.ACC.F.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF convictam /konˈwik.tam/ prove.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.F.SG
57.15a Cōnsuēsse to-be-accustomed enim for deōs the-gods immortālēs immortal quō so-that gravius more-heavily hominēs men ex from commūtātiōne the-change rērum of-things doleant may-suffer quōs whom prō for scelere crime eōrum their ulcīscī to-punish velint they-wish hīs to-these secundiōrēs more-favourable interdum sometimes rēs things et and diūturniōrem longer impūnitātem impunity concēdere to-grant
57.15b Cōnsuēsse /koːn.suˈeːs.se/ be-accustomed.PERF.INF enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ deōs /ˈde.oːs/ god.ACC.M.PL immortālēs /im.morˈtaː.leːs/ immortal.ACC.M.PL quō /kʷoː/ so-that.CONJ gravius /ˈɡra.wi.us/ heavily.ADV.COMP hominēs /ˈho.mi.neːs/ person.NOM.M.PL ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL commūtātiōne /kom.muː.taː.tiˈoː.ne/ change.ABL.F.SG rērum /ˈreː.rum/ thing.GEN.F.PL doleant /ˈdo.le.ant/ grieve.3PL.PRES.SUBJ quōs /kʷoːs/ whom.ACC.M.PL prō /proː/ for.PREP+ABL scelere /ˈske.le.re/ crime.ABL.N.SG eōrum /eˈoː.rum/ they.GEN.M.PL ulcīscī /ulˈkiːs.kiː/ punish.PRES.INF.DEP velint /ˈwe.lint/ wish.3PL.PRES.SUBJ hīs /hiːs/ this.DAT.M.PL secundiōrēs /se.kun.diˈoː.reːs/ favourable.COMP.ACC.F.PL interdum /inˈter.dum/ sometimes.ADV rēs /reːs/ thing.ACC.F.PL et /et/ and.CONJ diūturniōrem /di.uː.tur.niˈoː.rem/ lasting.COMP.ACC.F.SG impūnitātem /im.puː.niˈtaː.tem/ impunity.ACC.F.SG concēdere /konˈkeː.de.re/ grant.PRES.INF
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57.1 Hostēs enim adsunt. → “For the enemy are here.”
57.2 Nōn enim timēmus. → “For we are not afraid.”
57.3 Mīles enim vigilat. → “For the soldier is on watch.”
57.4 Bellum enim īnstat. → “For war is at hand.”
57.5 Nāvis enim parāta est. → “For the ship is ready.”
57.6 Castra mūnīmus; nox enim appropinquat. → “We are fortifying the camp, for night is coming on.”
57.7 Nautae portum petunt; mare enim turbidum est. → “The sailors are making for harbour, for the sea is rough.”
57.8 Dux equitēs praemittit; iter enim ignōtum est. → “The general sends the cavalry ahead, for the route is unknown.”
57.9 Nēmō castra relinquat; hostēs enim prope sunt. → “Let no one leave the camp, for the enemy are near.”
57.10 Neque enim sine frūmentō exercitus diū pugnāre potest. → “For an army cannot fight for long without grain.”
57.11 Silent enim lēgēs inter arma. → “For among arms the laws are silent.” (Cicero, Prō Milōne 11)
57.12 Saepius enim pēnūria quam pugna cōnsūmit exercitum, et ferrō saevior famēs est. → “For want destroys an army more often than battle does, and hunger is crueller than the sword.” (Vegetius, Epitoma reī mīlitāris 3.3)
57.13 Scientia enim reī bellicae dīmicandī nūtrit audāciam: nēmō facere metuit quod sē bene didicisse cōnfīdit. → “For knowledge of warfare feeds the courage to fight: no one is afraid to do what he is sure he has learned well.” (Vegetius, Epitoma reī mīlitāris 1.1)
57.14 Scīre enim, quibuscumque exercitus dictō audiēns nōn fuerit, aut male rē gestā fortūnam dēfuisse aut aliquō facinore compertō avāritiam esse convictam. → “For he knew, he said, that whenever a general’s army had not obeyed his command, either fortune had failed him in a defeat, or some crime had come to light and he had been proved guilty of greed.” (Caesar, Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.40.12)
57.15 Cōnsuēsse enim deōs immortālēs, quō gravius hominēs ex commūtātiōne rērum doleant, quōs prō scelere eōrum ulcīscī velint, hīs secundiōrēs interdum rēs et diūturniōrem impūnitātem concēdere. → “For the immortal gods, he said, are accustomed to grant to those whom they mean to punish for their crime a time of greater prosperity and a longer freedom from punishment, so that they may suffer the more bitterly from the change in their fortunes.” (Caesar, Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.14.5)
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57.1 Hostēs enim adsunt.
57.2 Nōn enim timēmus.
57.3 Mīles enim vigilat.
57.4 Bellum enim īnstat.
57.5 Nāvis enim parāta est.
57.6 Castra mūnīmus; nox enim appropinquat.
57.7 Nautae portum petunt; mare enim turbidum est.
57.8 Dux equitēs praemittit; iter enim ignōtum est.
57.9 Nēmō castra relinquat; hostēs enim prope sunt.
57.10 Neque enim sine frūmentō exercitus diū pugnāre potest.
57.11 Silent enim lēgēs inter arma.
57.12 Saepius enim pēnūria quam pugna cōnsūmit exercitum, et ferrō saevior famēs est.
57.13 Scientia enim reī bellicae dīmicandī nūtrit audāciam: nēmō facere metuit quod sē bene didicisse cōnfīdit.
57.14 Scīre enim, quibuscumque exercitus dictō audiēns nōn fuerit, aut male rē gestā fortūnam dēfuisse aut aliquō facinore compertō avāritiam esse convictam.
57.15 Cōnsuēsse enim deōs immortālēs, quō gravius hominēs ex commūtātiōne rērum doleant, quōs prō scelere eōrum ulcīscī velint, hīs secundiōrēs interdum rēs et diūturniōrem impūnitātem concēdere.
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These are the grammar rules for enim in Latin:
1. A conjunction of explanation
Enim is a coordinating conjunction. It joins its clause to what has gone before and gives the reason for it, the evidence for it, or an explanation of it. It does not change its form. Read the sentence before, then read enim as “for” or “you see”: castra mūnīmus; nox enim appropinquat (57.6). In 57.1–57.5 the first half is left unsaid, as it often is in a conversation: “(We are standing to arms,) for the enemy are here.”
2. Enim is postpositive
Enim never stands first in its clause. Usually it is the second word: hostēs enim (57.1), mīles enim (57.3), silent enim (57.11), saepius enim (57.12). A word that closely belongs to the next one may come before it, so that enim follows a pair: nōn enim (57.2), neque enim (57.10), quid enim (57.20, F.3). In English “for” must go to the front of the clause: hostēs enim adsunt is “for the enemy are here,” never “the enemy for are here.”
3. Enim and nam
Nam also means “for,” but it stands first: nam hostēs adsunt = hostēs enim adsunt. Nam often gives a fresh explanation or example with more weight; enim slips its reason in quietly after the first word. Both are common in military prose, and Vegetius uses both.
4. Neque enim, nec enim, nōn enim: “for … not”
When the reason is negative, Latin often writes neque enim (nec enim): neque enim sine frūmentō exercitus diū pugnāre potest, “for an army cannot fight long without grain” (57.10; also 57.23). Neque here does not mean “neither”; it is simply “and not,” and with enim, “for … not.” Nōn enim is also correct (57.2).
5. Quid enim?
Quid enim … ? is a lively question: “why, what …?” or “for what …?” Quid enim timēs? (57.20), “Why, what are you afraid of?” Vegetius uses it for a question that answers itself: quid enim adversus Gallōrum multitūdinem paucitās Rōmāna valuisset? (F.3), “for what could Roman small numbers have done against the Gauls’ multitude?” The answer is “nothing.”
6. At enim: the objection
At enim, “but, it may be said,” brings in an objection, often one the speaker expects from the other side: at enim ventus saepe mūtātur (57.18), “but surely the wind often changes.” Here enim has the old meaning “indeed.”
7. Etenim and enimvērō
Etenim (et + enim), “and indeed, for,” stands first, unlike enim (57.25, F.5). Enimvērō, “yes indeed, to be sure,” is emphatic and also stands first.
8. Enim does not change the mood
The verb after enim is in whatever mood the sentence needs without it. In 57.9 relinquat is subjunctive because it is a command (“let no one leave”), not because of enim. In 57.14 and 57.15 Caesar is reporting a speech in indirect statement, so the main verbs are infinitives (scīre, dēfuisse, esse convictam; cōnsuēsse, concēdere), and enim stands second, exactly as it would in direct speech.
9. Other constructions in the examples
Dictō audiēns esse (57.14), “to be obedient to the word,” with the dative of the person obeyed: quibuscumque, “to whomever.” Male rē gestā and aliquō facinore compertō (57.14) are ablatives absolute: “the business having been done badly,” “some crime having been discovered.” Cōnsuēsse (57.15) is the shortened perfect infinitive of cōnsuēscō, for cōnsuēvisse; the perfect means “to have become used to,” that is, “to be accustomed.” Quō gravius … doleant (57.15) is a purpose clause: quō is used instead of ut when the clause contains a comparative. Ferrō saevior (57.12) is an ablative of comparison: “crueller than iron.” Dīmicandī (57.13) is a gerund in the genitive depending on audāciam: “the courage of fighting.”
Common Mistakes
Putting enim first. *Enim hostēs adsunt is wrong. Write hostēs enim adsunt, or nam hostēs adsunt.
Translating in Latin word order. Hostēs enim adsunt is not “the enemy for are here.” Move “for” to the front.
Using enim as a preposition. English “for the general,” “for three days,” “for grain” are prō duce or ducī, trēs diēs, frūmentī causā. Enim joins clauses; it never governs a noun.
Confusing enim with autem. Autem, “however, moreover” (F.1), is also postpositive and also stands second, but it marks a contrast or a new step, not a reason.
Reading neque enim as “neither … nor.” Neque enim is “for … not.”
Pronouncing enim as “EE-nim.” Both vowels are short: E-nim.
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The word of reasons
A Roman officer had to account for what he did, to his general, to the senate, and to the men who carried out his orders. In military prose enim marks the place where the explanation begins: the order or the fact comes first, and the reason follows. Reading the enim-clauses in Caesar or Vegetius is a quick way of finding why something was done, and not only what was done.
Laws silent among arms
In 52 BC the politician Titus Annius Milo and his armed escort met his enemy Publius Clodius and his men on the Via Appia, and Clodius was killed. Cicero defended Milo. His argument was that Milo had acted in self-defence, and that the law itself allows a man to meet an armed attack with force: silent enim lēgēs inter arma, “for among arms the laws are silent” (Prō Milōne 11; 57.11). Cicero meant the weapons of a street fight and an ambush, not war between states. The sentence has since been quoted, usually without its enim, in arguments about what happens to law in time of war. The enim is worth noticing: in Cicero the line is not a slogan but a reason, given in support of a claim about self-defence. Cicero lost the case, and Milo went into exile.
Hunger crueller than steel
Book 3 of Vegetius’ Epitoma reī mīlitāris turns from training to campaigning, and its third chapter deals with supply: Ordō postulat ut dē commeātū pābulō frūmentīsque dīcātur, “the order of the work demands that we speak of supplies, fodder and grain.” Then comes the reason: saepius enim pēnūria quam pugna cōnsūmit exercitum, et ferrō saevior famēs est (3.3; 57.12). The enim tells you why a chapter on grain belongs in a book on war. Vegetius wrote in the late fourth or early fifth century AD, gathering older Roman military practice for an emperor; which emperor is still debated.
Fear of the Germans at Vesontio
In 58 BC Caesar’s army lay at Vesontio (Besançon) before the campaign against the German king Ariovistus. Traders and Gauls told stories of the size and fierceness of the Germans, and panic spread through the camp; some men were making their wills. Caesar called a council, with the centurions of all ranks, and rebuked them. Part of his speech, which he reports in indirect statement, is a reason given with enim: he knew, he said, that armies had refused to obey only generals who had failed in the field or had been caught in some crime and proved greedy (Dē Bellō Gallicō 1.40.12; 57.14). The next sentence completes the thought: his own honesty was shown by his whole life, and his good fortune by the war with the Helvetii. The argument is short and hard: an army has no reason to distrust this general.
The gods and the change of fortune
Earlier in the same year the Helvetian envoy Divico reminded Caesar of an old Roman defeat at Helvetian hands. Caesar’s reply, again in indirect statement, includes the warning of 1.14.5 (57.15): the gods often give success and a long delay of punishment to those they intend to punish, so that the change of fortune hurts them more. Enim makes the warning a reason: “do not trust your past success, for this is how the gods prepare a fall.”
A fleet waiting for the wind
The genre section below is a council on a beach on the coast of Gaul. It is a composition for this lesson, but its problems are real ones. In 55 BC Caesar crossed to Britain; the eighteen ships carrying his cavalry were delayed, and when they finally sailed a sudden storm scattered them and drove them back (Dē Bellō Gallicō 4.28). The next night the full moon brought very high tides (Lesson 55), and the ships at anchor and on the beach were badly damaged (4.29). A ship’s master who says “not yet, for the wind is wrong” is giving the most important kind of military advice: the reason against.
Modern traces
Enim has left no word in English. Its habit survives in the explanatory “for” of formal English prose (“He did not sail, for the wind was against him”), which does the same work and is now rare in speech. Readers of Latin learn to look for enim at once: when it appears, the writer is defending what has just been said.
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Vegetius, Epitoma reī mīlitāris 1.1, with the sentence that leads into it (late fourth or early fifth century AD). Vegetius opens his first book on the recruiting and training of soldiers with a single claim, and then defends it with enim, again and again. Why did Rome win? Not by numbers, size or wealth, but by training. F.1–F.4 are consecutive; F.5 is the last sentence of the same chapter, after a passage left out here (the sentence in 57.13 belongs to that passage). The text is from the Latin Library, with v for consonantal u; the macrons are editorial.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a In in omnī every autem however proeliō battle nōn not tam so-much multitūdō numbers et and virtūs courage indocta untaught quam as ars skill et and exercitium training solent are-accustomed praestāre to-secure victōriam victory
F.1b In /in/ in.PREP+ABL omnī /ˈom.niː/ every.ABL.N.SG autem /ˈau̯.tem/ however.CONJ proeliō /ˈproe̯.li.oː/ battle.ABL.N.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV tam /tam/ so.ADV multitūdō /mul.tiˈtuː.doː/ multitude.NOM.F.SG et /et/ and.CONJ virtūs /ˈwir.tuːs/ courage.NOM.F.SG indocta /inˈdok.ta/ untaught.NOM.F.SG quam /kʷam/ as.CONJ ars /ars/ skill.NOM.F.SG et /et/ and.CONJ exercitium /ek.serˈki.ti.um/ training.NOM.N.SG solent /ˈso.lent/ be-accustomed.3PL.PRES praestāre /prae̯sˈtaː.re/ secure.PRES.INF victōriam /wikˈtoː.ri.am/ victory.ACC.F.SG
F.2a Nūllā by-no enim for aliā other rē thing vidēmus we-see populum the-people Rōmānum Roman orbem the-world subēgisse to-have-subdued terrārum of-lands nisi except armōrum of-arms exercitiō by-training disciplīnā by-the-discipline castrōrum of-the-camp ūsūque and-by-practice mīlitiae of-soldiering
F.2b Nūllā /ˈnuːl.laː/ no.ABL.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ aliā /ˈa.li.aː/ other.ABL.F.SG rē /reː/ thing.ABL.F.SG vidēmus /wiˈdeː.mus/ see.1PL.PRES populum /ˈpo.pu.lum/ people.ACC.M.SG Rōmānum /roːˈmaː.num/ Roman.ACC.M.SG orbem /ˈor.bem/ circle.ACC.M.SG subēgisse /sub.eːˈɡis.se/ subdue.PERF.INF terrārum /terˈraː.rum/ land.GEN.F.PL nisi /ˈni.si/ except.CONJ armōrum /arˈmoː.rum/ arms.GEN.N.PL exercitiō /ek.serˈki.ti.oː/ training.ABL.N.SG disciplīnā /dis.kiˈpliː.naː/ discipline.ABL.F.SG castrōrum /kasˈtroː.rum/ camp.GEN.N.PL ūsūque /uːˈsuː.kʷe/ practice.ABL.M.SG+and mīlitiae /miːˈli.ti.ae̯/ military-service.GEN.F.SG
F.3a Quid what enim for adversus against Gallōrum of-the-Gauls multitūdinem the-multitude paucitās small-numbers Rōmāna Roman valuisset would-have-availed
F.3b Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ adversus /adˈwer.sus/ against.PREP+ACC Gallōrum /ɡalˈloː.rum/ Gaul.GEN.M.PL multitūdinem /mul.tiˈtuː.di.nem/ multitude.ACC.F.SG paucitās /ˈpau̯.ki.taːs/ fewness.NOM.F.SG Rōmāna /roːˈmaː.na/ Roman.NOM.F.SG valuisset /wa.luˈis.set/ avail.3SG.PLUPERF.SUBJ
F.4a Quid what adversus against Germānōrum of-the-Germans prōcēritātem the-tallness brevitās shortness potuisset could-have audēre to-dare
F.4b Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG adversus /adˈwer.sus/ against.PREP+ACC Germānōrum /ɡer.maːˈnoː.rum/ German.GEN.M.PL prōcēritātem /proː.keː.riˈtaː.tem/ tallness.ACC.F.SG brevitās /ˈbre.wi.taːs/ shortness.NOM.F.SG potuisset /po.tuˈis.set/ be-able.3SG.PLUPERF.SUBJ audēre /au̯ˈdeː.re/ dare.PRES.INF
F.5a Etenim and-indeed in in certāmine the-contest bellōrum of-wars exercitāta trained paucitās a-small-number ad for victōriam victory prōmptior readier est is rudis raw et and indocta untaught multitūdō a-multitude exposita exposed semper always ad to caedem slaughter
F.5b Etenim /ˈe.te.nim/ and-indeed.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL certāmine /kerˈtaː.mi.ne/ contest.ABL.N.SG bellōrum /belˈloː.rum/ war.GEN.N.PL exercitāta /ek.ser.kiˈtaː.ta/ train.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG paucitās /ˈpau̯.ki.taːs/ fewness.NOM.F.SG ad /ad/ for.PREP+ACC victōriam /wikˈtoː.ri.am/ victory.ACC.F.SG prōmptior /ˈproːmp.ti.or/ ready.COMP.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES rudis /ˈru.dis/ raw.NOM.F.SG et /et/ and.CONJ indocta /inˈdok.ta/ untaught.NOM.F.SG multitūdō /mul.tiˈtuː.doː/ multitude.NOM.F.SG exposita /eksˈpo.si.ta/ expose.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG semper /ˈsem.per/ always.ADV ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC caedem /ˈkae̯.dem/ slaughter.ACC.F.SG
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
In omnī autem proeliō nōn tam multitūdō et virtūs indocta quam ars et exercitium solent praestāre victōriam. Nūllā enim aliā rē vidēmus populum Rōmānum orbem subēgisse terrārum nisi armōrum exercitiō, disciplīnā castrōrum ūsūque mīlitiae. Quid enim adversus Gallōrum multitūdinem paucitās Rōmāna valuisset? Quid adversus Germānōrum prōcēritātem brevitās potuisset audēre? … Etenim in certāmine bellōrum exercitāta paucitās ad victōriam prōmptior est, rudis et indocta multitūdō exposita semper ad caedem.
“In every battle, however, it is not so much numbers and untaught courage that usually secure victory as skill and training. For we see that the Roman people conquered the world by nothing else than training in arms, the discipline of the camp and practice in soldiering. For what could the small numbers of the Romans have done against the multitude of the Gauls? What could Roman shortness have dared against the tallness of the Germans? … And indeed, in the contest of war a small force that has been trained is readier for victory; a raw and untrained multitude is always exposed to slaughter.”
— Vegetius, Epitoma reī mīlitāris 1.1
F-C: Latin Text Only
In omnī autem proeliō nōn tam multitūdō et virtūs indocta quam ars et exercitium solent praestāre victōriam. Nūllā enim aliā rē vidēmus populum Rōmānum orbem subēgisse terrārum nisi armōrum exercitiō, disciplīnā castrōrum ūsūque mīlitiae. Quid enim adversus Gallōrum multitūdinem paucitās Rōmāna valuisset? Quid adversus Germānōrum prōcēritātem brevitās potuisset audēre? … Etenim in certāmine bellōrum exercitāta paucitās ad victōriam prōmptior est, rudis et indocta multitūdō exposita semper ad caedem.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
The passage is built on one claim and its reasons. F.1 states the claim, with autem, “however,” the other common postpositive particle: autem marks a new step or a contrast, and enim gives a reason. F.2 begins the defence with enim: nūllā enim aliā rē … nisi, “by no other thing … than,” an ablative of means with nisi bringing in the exceptions. Orbem … terrārum, “the circle of lands,” is the usual Latin for “the world”; Vegetius divides the phrase and puts the verb inside it. Subēgisse is the perfect infinitive of subigō in an accusative-and-infinitive clause after vidēmus. F.3 and F.4 are questions that answer themselves, the first with quid enim. Valuisset and potuisset are pluperfect subjunctives in an unreal condition with its if-clause left out: “what could Roman fewness have done (if it had not been trained)?” The second question has no enim, because it continues the first. F.5 begins with etenim, which stands first, and gives the conclusion of the whole chapter. Its two halves have no conjunction between them (asyndeton), and the second half leaves out est: multitūdō exposita (est) semper ad caedem.
Vegetius chose his examples with care. In the chapter he goes on to admit that the Spaniards had outnumbered the Romans and been stronger in body, that the Africans were richer and more cunning, and that the Greeks were superior in skill and good sense. Against every such advantage Rome had one answer: selecting recruits well, teaching them the law of arms, and drilling them every day. For a strategist the logic is the point. Numbers, size, wealth and cleverness belong to the enemy and cannot be changed; training belongs to the commander and can.
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A pedagogical composition, written for this lesson and not a quotation. A Roman fleet is waiting on the coast of Gaul to cross to Britain. A legate (lēgātus) wants to sail; the ship’s master (gubernātor, literally “helmsman”) refuses; a centurion (centuriō) listens to both. Every speaker gives a reason, so every line has enim, and each line begins with the speaker’s name.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
57.16a Lēgātus legate Cūr why nōndum not-yet solvimus do-we-set-sail Mīlitēs the-soldiers enim for parātī ready sunt are
57.16b Lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG Cūr /kuːr/ why.ADV nōndum /ˈnoːn.dum/ not-yet.ADV solvimus /ˈsol.wi.mus/ set-sail.1PL.PRES Mīlitēs /ˈmiː.li.teːs/ soldier.NOM.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ parātī /paˈraː.tiː/ ready.NOM.M.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES
57.17a Gubernātor master Ventus the-wind enim for adversus contrary est is
57.17b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Ventus /ˈwen.tus/ wind.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ adversus /adˈwer.sus/ contrary.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.18a Lēgātus legate At but enim indeed ventus the-wind saepe often mūtātur is-changed
57.18b Lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG At /at/ but.CONJ enim /ˈe.nim/ indeed.CONJ ventus /ˈwen.tus/ wind.NOM.M.SG saepe /ˈsae̯.pe/ often.ADV mūtātur /muːˈtaː.tur/ change.3SG.PRES.PASS
57.19a Gubernātor master Nōn not hodiē today caelum the-sky enim for nūbibus with-clouds tegitur is-covered
57.19b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV hodiē /ˈho.di.eː/ today.ADV caelum /ˈkae̯.lum/ sky.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ nūbibus /ˈnuː.bi.bus/ cloud.ABL.F.PL tegitur /ˈte.ɡi.tur/ cover.3SG.PRES.PASS
57.20a Centuriō centurion Quid what enim then timēs do-you-fear gubernātor master
57.20b Centuriō /kenˈtu.ri.oː/ centurion.NOM.M.SG Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ timēs /ˈti.meːs/ fear.2SG.PRES gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.VOC.M.SG
57.21a Gubernātor master Saxa the-rocks timeō I-fear ōra the-coast enim for Britanniae of-Britain ignōta unknown est is
57.21b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Saxa /ˈsak.sa/ rock.ACC.N.PL timeō /ˈti.me.oː/ fear.1SG.PRES ōra /ˈoː.ra/ coast.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ Britanniae /briˈtan.ni.ae̯/ Britain.GEN.F.SG ignōta /iɡˈnoː.ta/ unknown.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
57.22a Gubernātor master Nāvēs the-ships enim for onerāriae transport gravēs heavy et and tardae slow sunt are
57.22b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Nāvēs /ˈnaː.weːs/ ship.NOM.F.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ onerāriae /o.neˈraː.ri.ae̯/ cargo.NOM.F.PL gravēs /ˈɡra.weːs/ heavy.NOM.F.PL et /et/ and.CONJ tardae /ˈtar.dae̯/ slow.NOM.F.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES
57.23a Lēgātus legate Neque not enim for diūtius longer exspectāre to-wait possumus we-can frūmentum the-grain dēficit is-running-out
57.23b Lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG Neque /ˈne.kʷe/ and-not.CONJ enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ diūtius /diˈuː.ti.us/ long.ADV.COMP exspectāre /eks.spekˈtaː.re/ wait.PRES.INF possumus /ˈpos.su.mus/ be-able.1PL.PRES frūmentum /fruːˈmen.tum/ grain.NOM.N.SG dēficit /ˈdeː.fi.kit/ run-short.3SG.PRES
57.24a Centuriō centurion Vērum the-truth dīcit speaks lēgātus the-legate mīlitēs the-soldiers enim for in on lītore the-shore iam now trēs three diēs days sedent are-sitting
57.24b Centuriō /kenˈtu.ri.oː/ centurion.NOM.M.SG Vērum /ˈweː.rum/ true.ACC.N.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG mīlitēs /ˈmiː.li.teːs/ soldier.NOM.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ in /in/ on.PREP+ABL lītore /ˈliː.to.re/ shore.ABL.N.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV trēs /treːs/ three.ACC.M.PL diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.ACC.M.PL sedent /ˈse.dent/ sit.3PL.PRES
57.25a Gubernātor master Etenim and-indeed mare the-sea hominibus men nōn not pāret obeys
57.25b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Etenim /ˈe.te.nim/ and-indeed.CONJ mare /ˈma.re/ sea.NOM.N.SG hominibus /hoˈmi.ni.bus/ person.DAT.M.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV pāret /ˈpaː.ret/ obey.3SG.PRES
57.26a Lēgātus legate Properandum to-be-hurried est it-is Caesar Caesar enim for nōs us exspectat is-waiting-for
57.26b Lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG Properandum /pro.peˈran.dum/ hurry.GERUNDIVE.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES Caesar /ˈkae̯.sar/ Caesar.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ nōs /noːs/ we.ACC.PL exspectat /eksˈspek.tat/ wait-for.3SG.PRES
57.27a Gubernātor master Sī if nunc now solverimus we-shall-have-set-sail nāvēs the-ships āmittēmus we-shall-lose tempestās a-storm enim for imminet is-threatening
57.27b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Sī /siː/ if.CONJ nunc /nuŋk/ now.ADV solverimus /solˈwe.ri.mus/ set-sail.1PL.FUT.PERF nāvēs /ˈnaː.weːs/ ship.ACC.F.PL āmittēmus /aː.mitˈteː.mus/ lose.1PL.FUT tempestās /temˈpes.taːs/ storm.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ imminet /ˈim.mi.net/ threaten.3SG.PRES
57.28a Centuriō centurion Audī listen-to eum him lēgāte legate ille he enim for hoc this mare sea trīgintā thirty annōs years nāvigat has-been-sailing
57.28b Centuriō /kenˈtu.ri.oː/ centurion.NOM.M.SG Audī /ˈau̯.diː/ hear.2SG.IMPER eum /ˈe.um/ he.ACC.M.SG lēgāte /leːˈɡaː.te/ legate.VOC.M.SG ille /ˈil.le/ that-one.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ hoc /hok/ this.ACC.N.SG mare /ˈma.re/ sea.ACC.N.SG trīgintā /triːˈɡin.taː/ thirty.INDECL annōs /ˈan.noːs/ year.ACC.M.PL nāvigat /ˈnaː.wi.ɡat/ sail.3SG.PRES
57.29a Lēgātus legate Manēbimus we-shall-stay igitur then nēmō no-one enim for nāvēs ships sine without causā cause perdere to-lose vult wishes
57.29b Lēgātus /leːˈɡaː.tus/ legate.NOM.M.SG Manēbimus /maˈneː.bi.mus/ stay.1PL.FUT igitur /ˈi.ɡi.tur/ therefore.CONJ nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ nāvēs /ˈnaː.weːs/ ship.ACC.F.PL sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL causā /ˈkau̯.saː/ cause.ABL.F.SG perdere /ˈper.de.re/ lose.PRES.INF vult /wult/ wish.3SG.PRES
57.30a Gubernātor master Crās tomorrow solvēmus we-shall-set-sail Auster the-south-wind enim for flābit will-blow
57.30b Gubernātor /ɡu.berˈnaː.tor/ helmsman.NOM.M.SG Crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV solvēmus /solˈweː.mus/ set-sail.1PL.FUT Auster /ˈau̯.ster/ south-wind.NOM.M.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ flābit /ˈflaː.bit/ blow.3SG.FUT
Part B: Natural Sentences
57.16 Lēgātus: Cūr nōndum solvimus? Mīlitēs enim parātī sunt. → “Legate: Why have we not yet set sail? The soldiers are ready.”
57.17 Gubernātor: Ventus enim adversus est. → “Master: Because the wind is against us.”
57.18 Lēgātus: At enim ventus saepe mūtātur. → “Legate: But surely the wind often changes.”
57.19 Gubernātor: Nōn hodiē: caelum enim nūbibus tegitur. → “Master: Not today, for the sky is covered with cloud.”
57.20 Centuriō: Quid enim timēs, gubernātor? → “Centurion: Why, what are you afraid of, master?”
57.21 Gubernātor: Saxa timeō; ōra enim Britanniae ignōta est. → “Master: I am afraid of the rocks, for the coast of Britain is unknown to us.”
57.22 Gubernātor: Nāvēs enim onerāriae gravēs et tardae sunt. → “Master: And the transports, you see, are heavy and slow.”
57.23 Lēgātus: Neque enim diūtius exspectāre possumus: frūmentum dēficit. → “Legate: But we cannot wait any longer: the grain is running out.”
57.24 Centuriō: Vērum dīcit lēgātus; mīlitēs enim in lītore iam trēs diēs sedent. → “Centurion: The legate is right; the soldiers have been sitting on the beach for three days now.”
57.25 Gubernātor: Etenim mare hominibus nōn pāret. → “Master: Yes, and the sea does not obey men.”
57.26 Lēgātus: Properandum est; Caesar enim nōs exspectat. → “Legate: We must hurry, for Caesar is waiting for us.”
57.27 Gubernātor: Sī nunc solverimus, nāvēs āmittēmus; tempestās enim imminet. → “Master: If we set sail now, we shall lose the ships, for a storm is coming.”
57.28 Centuriō: Audī eum, lēgāte; ille enim hoc mare trīgintā annōs nāvigat. → “Centurion: Listen to him, legate; he has been sailing this sea for thirty years.”
57.29 Lēgātus: Manēbimus igitur; nēmō enim nāvēs sine causā perdere vult. → “Legate: Then we shall stay; for nobody wants to lose ships for nothing.”
57.30 Gubernātor: Crās solvēmus; Auster enim flābit. → “Master: Tomorrow we sail, for the south wind will blow.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
57.16 Lēgātus: Cūr nōndum solvimus? Mīlitēs enim parātī sunt.
57.17 Gubernātor: Ventus enim adversus est.
57.18 Lēgātus: At enim ventus saepe mūtātur.
57.19 Gubernātor: Nōn hodiē: caelum enim nūbibus tegitur.
57.20 Centuriō: Quid enim timēs, gubernātor?
57.21 Gubernātor: Saxa timeō; ōra enim Britanniae ignōta est.
57.22 Gubernātor: Nāvēs enim onerāriae gravēs et tardae sunt.
57.23 Lēgātus: Neque enim diūtius exspectāre possumus: frūmentum dēficit.
57.24 Centuriō: Vērum dīcit lēgātus; mīlitēs enim in lītore iam trēs diēs sedent.
57.25 Gubernātor: Etenim mare hominibus nōn pāret.
57.26 Lēgātus: Properandum est; Caesar enim nōs exspectat.
57.27 Gubernātor: Sī nunc solverimus, nāvēs āmittēmus; tempestās enim imminet.
57.28 Centuriō: Audī eum, lēgāte; ille enim hoc mare trīgintā annōs nāvigat.
57.29 Lēgātus: Manēbimus igitur; nēmō enim nāvēs sine causā perdere vult.
57.30 Gubernātor: Crās solvēmus; Auster enim flābit.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
Every line of the council gives a reason, and every reason is marked. Enim in second place: 57.16, 57.17, 57.19, 57.21, 57.22, 57.24, 57.26, 57.27, 57.28, 57.29, 57.30. In 57.21 and 57.24 enim follows the first word of the second clause, not of the whole sentence: it belongs to its own clause. The fixed groups: at enim, the legate’s objection (57.18); quid enim, the centurion’s impatient question (57.20); neque enim, “for … not” (57.23). Etenim stands first (57.25).
English often does not need to translate enim with a word. In a quick exchange “because,” “you see,” “but,” “yes, and” or nothing at all may be better than “for” (57.17, 57.22, 57.23, 57.24, 57.25). The Latin reader still feels the link: each speaker is answering the reason of the one before.
Other points. Solvere, “to loose,” is used without an object for “to cast off, set sail” (57.16, 57.27, 57.30); Caesar writes of himself tertiā ferē vigiliā solvit, “he set sail at about the third watch” (Dē Bellō Gallicō 4.23). In 57.24 and 57.28 the present tense with a length of time (iam trēs diēs, trīgintā annōs) means “have been … for”: Latin uses the present because the action is still going on; the length of time is in the accusative of duration. Properandum est (57.26) is the impersonal gerundive, “there must be hurrying,” like dēspērandum in Lesson 56. Solverimus (57.27) is future perfect after sī, as in 56.27: “if we shall have sailed.” Hominibus (57.25) is dative after pāret: pāreō, “I obey,” takes the dative. Lēgāte (57.28) and gubernātor (57.20) are vocatives; the vocative of a third-declension noun is the same as the nominative. Nāvēs onerāriae (57.22) are transport or cargo ships, as against the nāvēs longae, the warships. Auster (57.30) is the south wind; for a fleet in the north of Gaul bound for Britain it is a following wind.
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Two short vowels. Enim is E-nim: both vowels short, stress on the first. It is never written with a macron.
Elision. In verse and quick speech a final vowel before enim is slurred into it: neque enim sounds like “nequ’enim.” After a consonant the words simply run together: quid enim is said “qui-de-nim.” In prose reading, say both words clearly.
Etenim and enimvērō. Etenim is one word, E-te-nim. Enimvērō is usually printed as one word, sometimes as two (enim vērō); stress the long vē.
Consonantal u. Late Latin texts and many editions of Vegetius print u for both the vowel and the consonant: uidemus, ualuisset, breuitas. This course writes v for the consonant: vidēmus, valuisset, brevitās. The sound is /w/ in either spelling.
Gn. Ignōtum and ignōta (57.8, 57.21) and pugna, pugnāre (57.10, 57.12) are written here with /ɡn/. Many scholars hold that Romans said [ŋn]; either pronunciation is acceptable in this course.
Ex- before s. Exspectāre (57.23, 57.26) keeps the s after x in careful spelling; the form expectāre is also found. Say /eks.spekˈtaː.re/.
Capitalisation. Peoples and places are capitalised (Gallī, Germānī, Britannia), and so is the name of a wind treated as a person (Auster). Enim is never capitalised, because it never begins a sentence.
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