Welcome to Lesson 001 of our Nahuatl language course, based on authentic texts from the Florentine Codex, one of the most remarkable documents of indigenous knowledge ever created. This lesson introduces you to Classical Nahuatl through descriptions of the gods (tēteoh) from Book 1 of the Florentine Codex, compiled by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún working with Nahua elders, scribes, and artists in the 16th century.
Source: Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana MS 218-220, Florence, Italy Digital Access: https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/ Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Classical Nahuatl is an agglutinative language with a fascinating feature called omnipredicativity - both nouns and verbs can function as predicates without requiring a copula verb like “to be.” This means that in Nahuatl, you don’t say “X is Y” - instead, you can simply say “X Y” by treating the noun as a predicate.
For example: -
English: “He is a god” (requires copula “is”) -
Nahuatl: tēotl (god - but functions as “is a god”)
This lesson focuses on nominal predicate fronting, where nouns function as predicates and are often introduced by the particle ca (a declarative marker that adds assertive force).
This lesson demonstrates several key syntactic patterns: -
[NOM-PRED] - Nominal Predicate: Nouns functioning as predicates without copula -
[DECL] - Declarative particle “ca” fronting -
[TOP] - Topicalization with particle “in” (the definite article) -
[VSO] - Verb-Subject-Object order (basic word order) -
[VOS] - Verb-Object-Subject order (with indefinite objects)
-
Nahuatl does not use a copula verb for “to be” - nouns themselves can be predicates -
The particle ca adds declarative force to statements -
The particle in functions as “the” (definite article) and marks topics -
Word order is flexible but tends toward verb-initial patterns -
Orthography: Long vowels marked with macrons (ā, ē, ī, ō), glottal stop with ‘h’
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1.1a ca [DECL] tēotl god in the Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli [NOM-PRED]
1.1b ca (kah) declarative tēotl (TEH-otl) god in (een) the Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-lo-POCH-tlee) Hummingbird-on-the-Left
1.2a ca [DECL] tēteoh gods in the Mexihcah Mexica [NOM-PRED]
1.2b ca (kah) declarative tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods in (een) the Mexihcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica-people
1.3a tēotl god in the Tezcatlipoca Tezcatlipoca [NOM-PRED]
1.3b tēotl (TEH-otl) god in (een) the Tezcatlipoca (tes-kat-lee-POH-kah) Smoking-Mirror
1.4a ca [DECL] hueyi great tēotl god Quetzalcōātl Quetzalcoatl [NOM-PRED]
1.4b ca (kah) declarative hueyi (WEH-yee) great tēotl (TEH-otl) god Quetzalcōātl (ket-sal-KOH-ahtl) Feathered-Serpent
1.5a tēteoh gods ca [DECL] tlālticpac on-earth [NOM-PRED]
1.5b tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods ca (kah) declarative tlālticpac (tlahl-TEEK-pak) on-earth
2.1a ca [DECL] nāhualli sorcerer in the Tezcatlipoca Tezcatlipoca [NOM-PRED]
2.1b ca (kah) declarative nāhualli (nah-WAH-lee) sorcerer in (een) the Tezcatlipoca (tes-kat-lee-POH-kah) Smoking-Mirror
2.2a tēucyōtl divine-lordship īpan upon-it ōmpa there [NOM-PRED]
2.2b tēucyōtl (teh-oo-KYOH-tl) divine-lordship īpan (EE-pan) upon-it ōmpa (OHM-pah) there
2.3a ca [DECL] titlācah we-humans mācēhualtin common-people [NOM-PRED]
2.3b ca (kah) declarative titlācah (tee-TLAH-kah) we-humans mācēhualtin (mah-seh-wahl-TEEN) common-people
2.4a tēotl god quihuallāza he-throws-it-here in the tlālli earth [VSO]
2.4b tēotl (TEH-otl) god quihuallāza (kee-wahl-LAH-sah) he-throws-it-here in (een) the tlālli (TLAH-lee) earth
2.5a in the Tlāloc Tlaloc ca [DECL] tēotl god ātl water īhuān and quiyāhuitl rain [NOM-PRED]
2.5b in (een) the Tlāloc (TLAH-lok) Tlaloc ca (kah) declarative tēotl (TEH-otl) god ātl (ahtl) water īhuān (ee-WAHN) and quiyāhuitl (kee-YAH-weetl) rain
3.1a ca [DECL] ōmpa there tēteoh gods in the ilhuicatl sky [TOP]
3.1b ca (kah) declarative ōmpa (OHM-pah) there tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods in (een) the ilhuicatl (eel-wee-KAHTL) sky
3.2a tēotl god in the Tōnatiuh Tonatiuh quilnamiqui he-remembers-them in the tlācah humans [VSO]
3.2b tēotl (TEH-otl) god in (een) the Tōnatiuh (toh-nah-TEE-oo) Sun quilnamiqui (keel-nah-MEE-kee) he-remembers-them in (een) the tlācah (TLAH-kah) humans
3.3a ca [DECL] tēteohhuān with-gods nemih they-live in the mācēhualtin common-people [VOS]
3.3b ca (kah) declarative tēteohhuān (teh-teh-oh-WAHN) with-gods nemih (NEH-meeh) they-live in (een) the mācēhualtin (mah-seh-wahl-TEEN) common-people
3.4a zan only tēotl god in the Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli in the Mexihcah Mexica [TOP]
3.4b zan (sahn) only tēotl (TEH-otl) god in (een) the Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-lo-POCH-tlee) Hummingbird-on-the-Left in (een) the Mexihcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica
3.5a tēotl god īc with-it mopahti he-heals-himself in the cocoliztli sickness [VSO]
3.5b tēotl (TEH-otl) god īc (eek) with-it mopahti (mo-PAH-tee) he-heals-himself in (een) the cocoliztli (ko-ko-LEES-tlee) sickness
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1.1 Ca tēotl in Huitzilopochtli. “Huitzilopochtli is a god.”
1.2 Ca tēteoh in Mexihcah. “The Mexica have gods.” / “The gods belong to the Mexica.”
1.3 Tēotl in Tezcatlipoca. “Tezcatlipoca is a god.”
1.4 Ca hueyi tēotl Quetzalcōātl. “Quetzalcoatl is a great god.”
1.5 Tēteoh ca tlālticpac. “The gods are on earth.”
2.1 Ca nāhualli in Tezcatlipoca. “Tezcatlipoca is a sorcerer.”
2.2 Tēucyōtl īpan ōmpa. “Divine lordship is upon that place.”
2.3 Ca titlācah mācēhualtin. “We are humans, common people.”
2.4 Tēotl quihuallāza in tlālli. “The god throws down the earth.”
2.5 In Tlāloc ca tēotl ātl īhuān quiyāhuitl. “Tlaloc is the god of water and rain.”
3.1 Ca ōmpa tēteoh in ilhuicatl. “There in the sky are the gods.”
3.2 Tēotl in Tōnatiuh quilnamiqui in tlācah. “The god Tonatiuh remembers the humans.”
3.3 Ca tēteohhuān nemih in mācēhualtin. “The common people live with the gods.”
3.4 Zan tēotl in Huitzilopochtli in Mexihcah. “Huitzilopochtli alone is the god of the Mexica.”
3.5 Tēotl īc mopahti in cocoliztli. “Through the god the sickness heals itself.”
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1.1 Ca tēotl in Huitzilopochtli.
1.2 Ca tēteoh in Mexihcah.
1.3 Tēotl in Tezcatlipoca.
1.4 Ca hueyi tēotl Quetzalcōātl.
1.5 Tēteoh ca tlālticpac.
2.1 Ca nāhualli in Tezcatlipoca.
2.2 Tēucyōtl īpan ōmpa.
2.3 Ca titlācah mācēhualtin.
2.4 Tēotl quihuallāza in tlālli.
2.5 In Tlāloc ca tēotl ātl īhuān quiyāhuitl.
3.1 Ca ōmpa tēteoh in ilhuicatl.
3.2 Tēotl in Tōnatiuh quilnamiqui in tlācah.
3.3 Ca tēteohhuān nemih in mācēhualtin.
3.4 Zan tēotl in Huitzilopochtli in Mexihcah.
3.5 Tēotl īc mopahti in cocoliztli.
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These are the grammar rules for this text:
Classical Nahuatl has a unique grammatical feature called omnipredicativity: both nouns and verbs can function as predicates without requiring a copula verb. This is fundamentally different from English.
English structure: Subject + “to be” + Predicate Example: “He is a god”
Nahuatl structure: (Particle) + Predicate-Noun Example: tēotl “god” (= “is a god”)
The particle ca introduces declarative clauses and adds assertive force. It frequently appears before nominal predicates: -
ca tēotl = “(it) is indeed a god” -
tēotl = “god” / “(it is) a god” (without ca sounds like a dictionary entry)
Function: Softens the bare nominal predicate, making it more conversational and assertive.
The particle in serves multiple functions: -
Definite article: “the” -
in tēotl = “the god” -
Topic marker: Introduces what the sentence is about -
in Huitzilopochtli = “as for Huitzilopochtli” -
Relative clause introducer: “who/which/that”
Position: Always precedes the noun it modifies
Pattern: (ca) + NOUN
This construction turns a noun into a predicate: -
Ca tēotl in Huitzilopochtli = “Huitzilopochtli is a god” -
ca = declarative particle -
tēotl = “god” (functioning as predicate) -
in Huitzilopochtli = “the Huitzilopochtli” (subject)
Nahuatl uses prefixes to mark person and number on predicates: -
ni- = I (1st person singular) -
ti- = you (2nd person singular) -
ø- = he/she/it (3rd person singular - no prefix) -
ti-...-h = we (1st person plural) -
an-...-h = you (plural) -
ø-...-h = they (3rd person plural)
Example: -
titlācah = “we are humans” -
ti- = we (prefix) -
tlācah = “humans” (predicate noun) -
-h = plural marker
Non-possessed, non-incorporated nouns take an absolutive suffix: -
-tl after vowels: ā-tl “water” -
-tli after consonants: tōch-tli “rabbit” -
-li after /l/: cal-li “house” -
-in on some nouns: tēuc-tli ~ tēuc-tin (plural)
Basic order: Predicate-initial (VSO or VOS) -
VSO (Verb-Subject-Object): -
Tēotl quihuallāza in tlālli -
God throws-it-here the earth -
“The god throws down the earth” -
VOS (Verb-Object-Subject) - with indefinite objects: -
Quilnamiqui in tlācah in tēotl -
Remembers-them the humans the god -
“The god remembers the humans” -
Topicalization: Any element can be fronted for emphasis -
In Tlāloc ca tēotl ātl -
The Tlaloc declarative god water -
“As for Tlaloc, he is the god of water”
Nouns form plurals in several ways: -
-tin/-meh suffix: -
tēotl → tēteoh “gods” (irregular) -
mācēhualli → mācēhualtin “common people” -
Reduplication: -
Some nouns double the first syllable -
No change: -
Third person has no prefix, but context shows plural
-
Adding “to be”: English speakers want to insert a copula -
❌ “in Huitzilopochtli is tēotl” -
✓ Ca tēotl in Huitzilopochtli -
Omitting “in”: Forgetting the definite article -
❌ “Ca tēotl Huitzilopochtli” (sounds incomplete) -
✓ Ca tēotl in Huitzilopochtli -
Wrong word order: Using English SVO order -
❌ “In tēotl quihuallāza in tlālli” (The god throws the earth - unnatural) -
✓ Tēotl quihuallāza in tlālli (predicate-initial) -
Forgetting absolutive: Bare noun stems without suffix -
❌ “ca tēo” -
✓ ca tēotl
English Nahuatl Notes He is a god Tēotl No copula needed The god is great Hueyi in tēotl Adjective as predicate We are humans Titlācah Subject prefix ti-...-h The gods live Nemih in tēteoh Verb + article + noun
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The Florentine Codex is the most comprehensive source for Classical Nahuatl and Mexica (Aztec) culture. Created between 1545-1577 by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún working with Nahua elders and scribes at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, it consists of 12 books with over 2,400 pages and 2,000 illustrations.
Book 1 describes the gods of the Aztec pantheon in extraordinary detail, including their names, attributes, rituals, clothing, and significance.
The major deities appearing in this lesson: -
Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird-on-the-Left): Patron deity of the Mexica people, god of war and the sun. His temple shared the Great Temple (Templo Mayor) with Tlaloc. -
Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror): God of the night sky, sorcery, and destiny. Often depicted with an obsidian mirror. -
Quetzalcōātl (Feathered Serpent): God of wind, learning, and the priesthood. Associated with the planet Venus. -
Tlāloc: Ancient rain god, provider of water for agriculture. One of the oldest Mesoamerican deities. -
Tōnatiuh (The Sun): Solar deity who required sustenance through ritual sacrifice.
These texts represent: -
Classical Nahuatl (16th century): The prestige dialect of Tenochtitlan -
Formal religious register: Elevated language for discussing sacred matters -
High-frequency vocabulary: Words like tēotl (god), tlācatl (human), ca (declarative) appear constantly
Classical Nahuatl is the central Mexican variety (Valley of Mexico). Modern Nahuatl has many regional variants, but all maintain the basic agglutinative structure and omnipredicative system.
Colonial period (16th-18th centuries): -
Orthography varied (u/v, ç/z/s confusion) -
Spanish loanwords entered the language -
Vowel length and glottal stop rarely marked
Modern standardization: -
Macrons for long vowels: ā, ē, ī, ō -
‘h’ for glottal stop (saltillo) -
Consistent spelling conventions
Nahuatl has an elaborate system of pre-predicate particles that convey: -
Tense-aspect-mood: ō- (perfective), -yā (imperfect) -
Clause type: ca (declarative), cuix (yes-no question), tleh (what) -
Focus and topic: in (topic), zan (only/just)
These particles appear in relatively fixed order before the predicate.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
This passage describes Huitzilopochtli, patron deity of the Mexica:
F-A: Detailed Interlinear Analysis
F-1a Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli zan only mācēhualli commoner zan only tlācatl man catca was [NOM-PRED]
F-1b Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-lo-POCH-tlee) Hummingbird-Left zan (sahn) only mācēhualli (mah-seh-WAH-lee) commoner zan (sahn) only tlācatl (TLAH-katl) man catca (KAT-kah) was
F-2a nāhualli sorcerer tetzāuhteōtl omen-of-evil atlācacemelle madman teixcuepani deceiver [NOM-PRED]
F-2b nāhualli (nah-WAH-lee) sorcerer tetzāuhteōtl (tet-tsah-oo-teh-OTL) omen-evil atlācacemelle (at-lah-kah-seh-MEH-leh) madman teixcuepani (teh-eesh-kweh-PAH-nee) deceiver
F-3a quiyocoyani he-creates in the yāōyōtl war yāōtecani war-lord yāōtlatōani war-instigator [VSO]
F-3b quiyocoyani (kee-yo-ko-YAH-nee) he-creates in (een) the yāōyōtl (yah-oh-YOTL) war yāōtecani (yah-oh-TEH-kah-nee) war-lord yāōtlatōani (yah-oh-tlah-toh-AH-nee) war-instigator
F-B: Natural Text + Translation
Huitzilopochtli zan mācēhualli, zan tlācatl catca: nāhualli, tetzāuhteōtl, atlācacemelle, teixcuepani: quiyocoyani in yāōyōtl, yāōtecani, yāōtlatōani.
“Huitzilopochtli was only a commoner, just a man. [He was] a sorcerer, an omen of evil, a madman, a deceiver. He created war, [he was] a war-lord, an instigator of war.”
F-C: Original Nahuatl Only
Huitzilopochtli zan mācēhualli, zan tlācatl catca: nāhualli, tetzāuhteōtl, atlācacemelle, teixcuepani: quiyocoyani in yāōyōtl, yāōtecani, yāōtlatōani.
F-D: Vocabulary & Grammar Notes -
catca = “was” (past tense copula - note that past tense DOES use an overt copula) -
zan = “only, just” (restrictive particle) -
Compound nouns: -
tetzāuhteōtl = tetzāuh (omen) + tēotl (divine) = “omen of evil” -
yāōyōtl = yāō- (war) + -yōtl (abstract noun suffix) = “warfare” -
yāōtlatōani = yāō- (war) + tlatōani (speaker/ruler) = “war leader” -
List structure: Uses commas to separate predicate nominatives -
No particle “in”: Before a series of attributes listed without article -
-ni ending: Agentive suffix (one who does X)
F-E: Literary/Contextual Commentary
This passage from the Florentine Codex presents a complex view of Huitzilopochtli. The text acknowledges he was originally human (zan mācēhualli, zan tlācatl) before being deified. The particle zan (”only, just”) emphasizes his humble origins.
The description includes both negative attributes (nāhualli “sorcerer”, atlācacemelle “madman”) and his role as war deity (yāōtecani, yāōtlatōani). This reflects the ambivalent colonial-era perspective: native informants providing traditional knowledge while Sahagún’s Christian framework shaped the presentation.
Source Citation: Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, Book 1 - The Gods, translated by Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1950), Part 1, Chapter 1.
Linguistic Note: The use of multiple nominal predicates in series (nāhualli, tetzāuhteōtl, atlācacemelle, teixcuepani) demonstrates the flexibility of Nahuatl’s omnipredicative system - each noun functions as “he was X” without needing to repeat the copula.
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This genre section demonstrates how Nahuatl describes divine attributes using nominal predicates and compound nouns.
G-A: Detailed Interlinear Analysis
G-1a Quetzalcōātl Quetzalcoatl ca declarative tēotl god ehecatl wind [NOM-PRED]
G-1b Quetzalcōātl (ket-sal-KOH-ahtl) Feathered-Serpent ca (kah) declarative tēotl (TEH-otl) god ehecatl (eh-heh-KAHTL) wind
G-2a quimocuitlahuia he-cares-for-them in the tlācah humans īc with tlamachiliztli knowledge [VSO]
G-2b quimocuitlahuia (kee-mo-kweet-lah-WEE-ah) he-cares-for-them in (een) the tlācah (TLAH-kah) humans īc (eek) with tlamachiliztli (tlah-mah-chee-LEES-tlee) knowledge
G-3a Tezcatlipoca Tezcatlipoca ca declarative titlacahuan our-lord yōhualli night īhuān and ehecatl wind [NOM-PRED]
G-3b Tezcatlipoca (tes-kat-lee-POH-kah) Smoking-Mirror ca (kah) declarative titlacahuan (teet-lah-kah-WAHN) our-lord yōhualli (yoh-WAH-lee) night īhuān (ee-WAHN) and ehecatl (eh-heh-KAHTL) wind
G-4a Tlāloc Tlaloc moquetza he-stands in the tepētl mountain ic with quiyāhuitl rain [VSO]
G-4b Tlāloc (TLAH-lok) Tlaloc moquetza (mo-KET-sah) he-stands in (een) the tepētl (TEH-petl) mountain ic (eek) with quiyāhuitl (kee-YAH-weetl) rain
G-5a ca declarative tēteoh gods īc with nemilizpan in-life in the mācēhualtin common-people [NOM-PRED]
G-5b ca (kah) declarative tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods īc (eek) with nemilizpan (neh-mee-LEES-pan) in-life in (een) the mācēhualtin (mah-seh-wahl-TEEN) common-people
G-6a Tōnatiuh Tonatiuh ca declarative tonalli day-sign īhuān and ilhuicatl sky [NOM-PRED]
G-6b Tōnatiuh (toh-nah-TEE-oo) Sun ca (kah) declarative tonalli (toh-NAH-lee) day-sign īhuān (ee-WAHN) and ilhuicatl (eel-wee-KAHTL) sky
G-7a in the Cihuācōātl Cihuacoatl ca declarative tēteoh gods cihuāpipiltin noble-women [NOM-PRED]
G-7b in (een) the Cihuācōātl (see-wah-KOH-ahtl) Woman-Snake ca (kah) declarative tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods cihuāpipiltin (see-wah-pee-PEEL-teen) noble-women
G-8a tēteoh gods quimatih they-know-them in the mācēhualtin common-people ītōcā their-names [VSO]
G-8b tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods quimatih (kee-MAH-teeh) they-know-them in (een) the mācēhualtin (mah-seh-wahl-TEEN) common-people ītōcā (ee-TOH-kah) their-names
G-9a ca declarative centeōtl one-god in the tēteoh gods ōmpa there ilhuicatl sky [TOP]
G-9b ca (kah) declarative centeōtl (sen-TEH-otl) one-god in (een) the tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods ōmpa (OHM-pah) there ilhuicatl (eel-wee-KAHTL) sky
G-10a quipiya he-has-it in the tēotl god īc with tēyōlīliztli divine-essence īhuān and tēyōliāni vivifier [VSO]
G-10b quipiya (kee-PEE-yah) he-has-it in (een) the tēotl (TEH-otl) god īc (eek) with tēyōlīliztli (teh-yoh-lee-LEES-tlee) divine-essence īhuān (ee-WAHN) and tēyōliāni (teh-yoh-lee-AH-nee) vivifier
G-11a Mictlāntēuctli Mictlantecuhtli ca declarative tēotl god mictlān place-of-dead īc with miquiliztli death [NOM-PRED]
G-11b Mictlāntēuctli (meek-tlahn-TEH-ook-tlee) Lord-of-Dead-Place ca (kah) declarative tēotl (TEH-otl) god mictlān (MEEK-tlahn) place-of-dead īc (eek) with miquiliztli (mee-kee-LEES-tlee) death
G-12a in the tēteoh gods tēchmomahuiltia they-honor-us īc with netlātlauhtilistli offerings [VSO]
G-12b in (een) the tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods tēchmomahuiltia (tech-mo-mah-weel-TEE-ah) they-honor-us īc (eek) with netlātlauhtilistli (net-lah-tlaoo-tee-LEES-tlee) offerings
G-13a ca declarative tēteoh gods nōhuiyān everywhere ipan upon tlālticpac on-earth [TOP]
G-13b ca (kah) declarative tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods nōhuiyān (noh-WEE-yahn) everywhere ipan (EE-pan) upon tlālticpac (tlahl-TEEK-pak) on-earth
G-14a tēteoh gods quittah they-see-it in the tlācah humans ītlahtōl their-words īhuān and ītlachihualli their-deeds [VSO]
G-14b tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods quittah (KEET-tah) they-see-it in (een) the tlācah (TLAH-kah) humans ītlahtōl (ee-tlah-TOHL) their-words īhuān (ee-WAHN) and ītlachihualli (ee-tlah-chee-WAH-lee) their-deeds
G-15a ca declarative tēteoh gods īc with tonēmiliztli our-life īhuān and tomiquiliztli our-death [NOM-PRED]
G-15b ca (kah) declarative tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) gods īc (eek) with tonēmiliztli (toh-neh-mee-LEES-tlee) our-life īhuān (ee-WAHN) and tomiquiliztli (toh-mee-kee-LEES-tlee) our-death
G-B: Natural Text + Translation
G-1 Quetzalcōātl ca tēotl ehecatl. “Quetzalcoatl is the god of wind.”
G-2 Quimocuitlahuia in tlācah īc tlamachiliztli. “He cares for the humans through knowledge.”
G-3 Tezcatlipoca ca titlacahuan yōhualli īhuān ehecatl. “Tezcatlipoca is our lord of night and wind.”
G-4 Tlāloc moquetza in tepētl ic quiyāhuitl. “Tlaloc stands on the mountain with rain.”
G-5 Ca tēteoh īc nemilizpan in mācēhualtin. “The gods are in the life of the common people.”
G-6 Tōnatiuh ca tonalli īhuān ilhuicatl. “Tonatiuh is the day-sign and the sky.”
G-7 In Cihuācōātl ca tēteoh cihuāpipiltin. “Cihuacoatl is among the divine noble women.”
G-8 Tēteoh quimatih in mācēhualtin ītōcā. “The gods know the names of the common people.”
G-9 Ca centeōtl in tēteoh ōmpa ilhuicatl. “The gods are one god there in the sky.”
G-10 Quipiya in tēotl īc tēyōlīliztli īhuān tēyōliāni. “The god possesses divine essence and is the vivifier.”
G-11 Mictlāntēuctli ca tēotl mictlān īc miquiliztli. “Mictlantecuhtli is the god of the place of the dead and death.”
G-12 In tēteoh tēchmomahuiltia īc netlātlauhtilistli. “The gods honor us with offerings.”
G-13 Ca tēteoh nōhuiyān ipan tlālticpac. “The gods are everywhere upon the earth.”
G-14 Tēteoh quittah in tlācah ītlahtōl īhuān ītlachihualli. “The gods see the words and deeds of humans.”
G-15 Ca tēteoh īc tonēmiliztli īhuān tomiquiliztli. “The gods are in our life and our death.”
G-C: Nahuatl Only
G-1 Quetzalcōātl ca tēotl ehecatl.
G-2 Quimocuitlahuia in tlācah īc tlamachiliztli.
G-3 Tezcatlipoca ca titlacahuan yōhualli īhuān ehecatl.
G-4 Tlāloc moquetza in tepētl ic quiyāhuitl.
G-5 Ca tēteoh īc nemilizpan in mācēhualtin.
G-6 Tōnatiuh ca tonalli īhuān ilhuicatl.
G-7 In Cihuācōātl ca tēteoh cihuāpipiltin.
G-8 Tēteoh quimatih in mācēhualtin ītōcā.
G-9 Ca centeōtl in tēteoh ōmpa ilhuicatl.
G-10 Quipiya in tēotl īc tēyōlīliztli īhuān tēyōliāni.
G-11 Mictlāntēuctli ca tēotl mictlān īc miquiliztli.
G-12 In tēteoh tēchmomahuiltia īc netlātlauhtilistli.
G-13 Ca tēteoh nōhuiyān ipan tlālticpac.
G-14 Tēteoh quittah in tlācah ītlahtōl īhuān ītlachihualli.
G-15 Ca tēteoh īc tonēmiliztli īhuān tomiquiliztli.
G-D: Vocabulary & Grammar
New Vocabulary: -
ehecatl = wind -
tlamachiliztli = knowledge (-liztli = abstract noun suffix) -
titlacahuan = our lord (ti- = our, tlacahuan = lord) -
yōhualli = night -
tepētl = mountain -
moquetza = he stands (mo- reflexive + quetza “raise”) -
nemilizpan = in life (-pan = locative “in/on”) -
tonalli = day-sign, fate -
cihuāpipiltin = noble women (cihuā- woman + pipil- noble + -tin plural) -
centeōtl = one god (cen- one + tēotl god) -
tēyōlīliztli = divine essence (tē- divine + yōl- heart/life + -liztli abstract) -
tēyōliāni = vivifier, life-giver (-ni agentive suffix) -
Mictlāntēuctli = Lord of Mictlan (mictlān death-place + tēuctli lord) -
miquiliztli = death (miqui- die + -liztli) -
netlātlauhtilistli = offerings (ne- reciprocal + tlātlauhtia offer + -liztli) -
nōhuiyān = everywhere (nōhui- all + -yān place) -
ītlachihualli = their deeds (ī- their + tlachihua make + -lli nominalizer)
Grammar Notes: -
Possession prefixes: ī- (his/her/its/their), to- (our), mo- (your plural) -
Abstract noun suffix -liztli: Forms abstract nouns from verbs -
Agentive suffix -ni: Creates “one who does X” -
Locative suffix -pan: “in, on, at” -
Object prefixes: tēch- (us), quin- (them)
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ātl (AHT-l) - water; absolutive -tl after vowel
ca (kah) - declarative particle; adds assertive force to statements
catca (KAT-kah) - was; past tense copula (note: past tense uses overt copula)
centeōtl (sen-TEH-otl) - one god; cen- (one) + tēotl (god)
Cihuācōātl (see-wah-KOH-ahtl) - Woman Snake; goddess name
cihuāpipiltin (see-wah-pee-PEEL-teen) - noble women; cihuā- (woman) + pipil- (noble) + -tin (plural)
cocoliztli (ko-ko-LEES-tlee) - sickness, disease; -liztli abstract noun suffix
ehecatl (eh-heh-KAHTL) - wind; one of Quetzalcoatl’s aspects
hueyi (WEH-yee) - great, large; predicate adjective
Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-lo-POCH-tlee) - Hummingbird on the Left; patron deity of Mexica
īc (eek) - with it, by means of; instrumental particle
īhuān (ee-WAHN) - and; conjunction
ilhuicatl (eel-wee-KAHTL) - sky, heaven; absolutive -tl
in (een) - the; definite article / topic marker / relative pronoun
īpan (EE-pan) - upon it, on it; ī- (its) + -pan (on)
ītlachihualli (ee-tlah-chee-WAH-lee) - their deeds; ī- (their) + tlachihua (make) + -lli
ītlahtōl (ee-tlah-TOHL) - their words; ī- (their) + tlahtōl (word/speech)
ītōcā (ee-TOH-kah) - their names; ī- (their) + tōcā (name)
mācēhualli (mah-seh-WAH-lee) - commoner, common person; plural: mācēhualtin
mācēhualtin (mah-seh-wahl-TEEN) - common people; plural of mācēhualli
Mexihcah (meh-SHEE-kah) - Mexica people; ethnic group that founded Tenochtitlan
mictlān (MEEK-tlahn) - place of the dead, underworld; miqui- (die) + -tlān (place)
Mictlāntēuctli (meek-tlahn-TEH-ook-tlee) - Lord of Mictlan; death god
miquiliztli (mee-kee-LEES-tlee) - death; miqui- (die) + -liztli (abstract)
mopahti (mo-PAH-tee) - he heals himself; mo- (reflexive) + pahti (heal)
moquetza (mo-KET-sah) - he stands; mo- (reflexive) + quetza (raise)
nāhualli (nah-WAH-lee) - sorcerer, shaman; one who can transform
nemih (NEH-meeh) - they live; nemi (live) + -h (3rd plural)
nemilizpan (neh-mee-LEES-pan) - in life; nemi- (live) + -liz- (abstract) + -pan (in)
netlātlauhtilistli (net-lah-tlaoo-tee-LEES-tlee) - offerings; ne- (reciprocal) + tlātlauhtia (offer) + -liztli
nōhuiyān (noh-WEE-yahn) - everywhere; nōhui- (all) + -yān (place)
ōmpa (OHM-pah) - there, in that place; locative adverb
Quetzalcōātl (ket-sal-KOH-ahtl) - Feathered Serpent; major deity
quihuallāza (kee-wahl-LAH-sah) - he throws it here; qui- (it) + huāl- (hither) + lāza (throw)
quilnamiqui (keel-nah-MEE-kee) - he remembers them; quin- (them) + ilnamiqui (remember)
quimatih (kee-MAH-teeh) - they know them; quin- (them) + mati (know) + -h (3rd plural)
quimocuitlahuia (kee-mo-kweet-lah-WEE-ah) - he cares for them; qui- (them) + mo- (reflexive) + cuitlahuia (care for)
quipiya (kee-PEE-yah) - he has it; qui- (it) + piya (guard/have)
quittah (KEET-tah) - they see it; qui- (it) + itta (see) + -h (3rd plural)
quiyāhuitl (kee-YAH-weetl) - rain; weather phenomenon
quiyocoyani (kee-yo-ko-YAH-nee) - he creates; qui- (it) + yocoya (create) + -ni (agentive)
tēchmomahuiltia (tech-mo-mah-weel-TEE-ah) - they honor us; tēch- (us) + mo- + mahuiltia (honor)
tepētl (TEH-petl) - mountain, hill
tēotl (TEH-otl) - god, divine being; absolutive -tl
tēteoh (TEH-teh-oh) - gods; irregular plural of tēotl
tēteohhuān (teh-teh-oh-WAHN) - with gods; tēteoh (gods) + -huān (with)
tetzāuhteōtl (tet-tsah-oo-teh-OTL) - omen of evil; tetzāuh- (omen) + tēotl (divine)
tēucyōtl (teh-oo-KYOH-tl) - divine lordship; tēuc- (lord) + -yōtl (abstract quality)
Tezcatlipoca (tes-kat-lee-POH-kah) - Smoking Mirror; major deity
tēyōliāni (teh-yoh-lee-AH-nee) - vivifier, life-giver; tē- (divine) + yōl- (life) + -ni (agentive)
tēyōlīliztli (teh-yoh-lee-LEES-tlee) - divine essence; tē- (divine) + yōl- (heart/life) + -liztli (abstract)
titlācah (teet-TLAH-kah) - we are humans; ti- (we) + tlācah (humans) + -h (plural marker)
titlacahuan (teet-lah-kah-WAHN) - our lord; ti- (our) + tlacahuan (lord)
tlācah (TLAH-kah) - humans, people; plural form
tlācatl (TLAH-katl) - man, human being, person; absolutive -tl
Tlāloc (TLAH-lok) - rain god; ancient Mesoamerican deity
tlālli (TLAH-lee) - earth, land; absolutive -li
tlālticpac (tlahl-TEEK-pak) - on earth, on the world; tlāl- (earth) + -tic- (in) + -pac (on)
tlamachiliztli (tlah-mah-chee-LEES-tlee) - knowledge; tlamach- (know) + -liztli (abstract)
tonalli (toh-NAH-lee) - day-sign, fate, warmth; from tōna (be sunny/warm)
tonēmiliztli (toh-neh-mee-LEES-tlee) - our life; to- (our) + nemi- (live) + -liztli
Tōnatiuh (toh-nah-TEE-oo) - Sun deity; the solar god
tomiquiliztli (toh-mee-kee-LEES-tlee) - our death; to- (our) + miqui- (die) + -liztli
yāōtecani (yah-oh-TEH-kah-nee) - war-lord; yāō- (war) + teca- (cut) + -ni (agentive)
yāōtlatōani (yah-oh-tlah-toh-AH-nee) - war instigator; yāō- (war) + tlatōani (speaker/ruler)
yāōyōtl (yah-oh-YOTL) - war, warfare; yāō- (war) + -yōtl (abstract)
yōhualli (yoh-WAH-lee) - night; period of darkness
zan (sahn) - only, just; restrictive particle
Subject Prefixes: -
ni- = I (1st person singular) -
ti- = you (2nd person singular) -
ø- = he/she/it (3rd person singular - zero prefix) -
ti-...-h = we (1st person plural) -
an-...-h = you all (2nd person plural) -
ø-...-h = they (3rd person plural)
Object Prefixes: -
nēch- = me -
mitz- = you (singular) -
c-/qui- = him/her/it -
tēch- = us -
amēch- = you (plural) -
quim-/quin- = them
Possession Prefixes: -
no- = my -
mo- = your (singular) -
ī- = his/her/its/their -
to- = our -
amo- = your (plural) -
īm- = their (alternate)
Absolutive Suffixes: -
-tl = after vowels (ā-tl “water”) -
-tli = after consonants (tōch-tli “rabbit”) -
-li = after /l/ (cal-li “house”) -
-in = on some nouns
Derivational Suffixes: -
-liztli = abstract noun (nemi “live” → nemiliztli “life”) -
-ni = agentive “one who does X” (yocoya “create” → yocoyani “creator”) -
-yōtl = abstract quality (tēuc “lord” → tēucyōtl “lordship”) -
-pan = locative “in, on, at” -
-huān = comitative “with” -
-lli = nominalizer
Particles: -
ca = declarative marker -
in = the / topic marker / relative pronoun -
īc = with, by means of -
zan = only, just -
īhuān = and -
ōmpa = there -
nōhuiyān = everywhere
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This Nahuatl language course is produced by the Latinum Institute, which has been creating comprehensive language learning materials since 2006. Our methodology emphasizes authentic texts and systematic vocabulary building through carefully curated materials.
Course Structure: This course uses a CSV-based progression system, introducing the 1000 most important concepts in Nahuatl through authentic texts from the Florentine Codex and other colonial and modern sources. Each lesson builds progressively on previous vocabulary and grammar, allowing autodidact learners to advance systematically.
The Latinum Method: Our approach focuses on: -
Authentic texts: Learn from real historical documents, not artificial examples -
Systematic grammar: Clear explanations of morphological patterns and syntactic structures -
Agglutination mastery: Understanding how Nahuatl builds complex words from roots and affixes -
Cultural context: Learning language inseparable from its cultural and historical background -
Progressive difficulty: From simple nominal predicates to complex literary passages
Why Nahuatl?: Classical Nahuatl is one of the great literary languages of the Americas, with an extensive corpus of colonial manuscripts, codices, and modern texts. It is still spoken by approximately 1.7 million people in Mexico today. Learning Classical Nahuatl provides access to: -
Pre-Columbian indigenous knowledge systems -
Colonial-era historical documents -
Rich poetic and philosophical traditions -
Modern indigenous literature
Agglutination: The key to understanding Nahuatl is mastering its agglutinative morphology. Unlike English, which uses separate words for grammatical relations, Nahuatl builds single words containing what English would express in entire phrases. For example: -
niquinnāmictinemiznequi = “I want to go around marrying them” -
ni- (I) + quin- (them) + nāmic- (marry) + -ti- (causative) + -nemi- (go around doing) + -z- (future) + -nequi (want)
This lesson has introduced you to the fundamental building blocks: nominal predicates, basic particles, and simple word order patterns. Each subsequent lesson will add new morphological patterns and more complex syntactic structures.
Resources & Links: -
Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index -
Latinum Institute Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk -
Digital Florentine Codex: https://florentinecodex.getty.edu/ -
Early Nahuatl Library: https://enl.wired-humanities.org/
For Autodidact Learners: This course is designed for independent study. Each lesson provides: -
Authentic text with full interlinear glossing -
Complete grammatical explanations -
Comprehensive vocabulary lists -
Progressive difficulty building on previous lessons -
Cultural and historical context
Work through each section systematically: -
Section A: Study the interlinear text to understand word-by-word construction -
Section B: Read the natural sentences to see how Nahuatl flows -
Section C: Test yourself by reading Nahuatl-only text -
Section D: Master the grammar rules -
Section E: Understand the cultural context -
Section F: Engage with authentic literary excerpts -
Genre Section: See how grammar applies in extended discourse
Study Tips: -
Pronunciation: Practice the phonetic transcriptions aloud. Nahuatl phonology is regular and predictable. -
Morphology: Memorize the subject prefixes and object prefixes - they appear in every verbal sentence. -
Word Order: Don’t impose English SVO order. Let Nahuatl’s predicate-initial patterns feel natural. -
Particles: The particles (ca, in, īc, zan) are the “glue” of Nahuatl syntax - learn them thoroughly. -
Agglutination: Break down long words into their component parts using the morpheme glosses.
Next Steps: Lesson 002 will continue with Florentine Codex Book 1, introducing the particle “ca” in more complex constructions and exploring additional deity descriptions. You will learn more about: -
Particle chains and their fixed ordering -
Complex nominal predicates with multiple modifiers -
Introduction to basic verb forms -
More deity names and their attributes
Acknowledgments: This course builds on the scholarly work of: -
Bernardino de Sahagún and his Nahua collaborators (16th century) -
Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (translators of the Florentine Codex) -
Michel Launey (omnipredicativity research) -
James Lockhart (Nahuatl linguistic analysis) -
Frances Karttunen (Nahuatl dictionary and grammar) -
R. Joe Campbell (Nahuatl grammar and pedagogy)
All authentic texts are used for educational purposes in accordance with scholarly fair use principles.
¡Mā ticchīhuacān in Nāhuatlahtōlli! Let us speak Nahuatl!
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Lesson 001 Complete
Latinum Institute - Creating comprehensive language learning materials since 2006
Course designed for systematic autodidact study | Progressive vocabulary building | Authentic historical texts | Complete grammatical instruction
© 2025 Latinum Institute. Educational materials for language preservation and study.
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