The English word "it" presents unique challenges when learning Classical Nahuatl because the language handles third-person reference quite differently from English. While English uses "it" as a distinct pronoun for inanimate objects and abstract concepts, Classical Nahuatl employs a more complex system involving verb prefixes, demonstratives, and often no explicit pronoun at all.
For the autodidact student, understanding how to express "it" in Nahuatl requires grasping several interconnected concepts. This lesson explores the various ways Nahuatl expresses what English speakers would translate as "it," including zero-marking (when the pronoun is understood from context), demonstrative pronouns like in (this/it) and on (that/it), and third-person object prefixes on verbs.
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Q: What does "it" mean in Classical Nahuatl? A: Classical Nahuatl does not have a direct equivalent to the English pronoun "it." Instead, it uses: (1) zero-marking where the subject is understood from the verb conjugation, (2) demonstrative pronouns in and on for "this" and "that," (3) third-person object prefixes -c/-qui- on verbs, and (4) context-dependent constructions. The language is pro-drop, meaning pronouns are often omitted when the referent is clear.
Course: Classical Nahuatl for English Speakers Level: Beginner to Intermediate Lesson Number: 10 Topic: Third Person Reference ("it") Learning Objectives: - Understand how Classical Nahuatl expresses third-person reference - Master the use of demonstrative pronouns in and on - Learn third-person object prefixes on verbs - Recognize when pronouns are omitted in Nahuatl Prerequisites: Basic Nahuatl verb conjugation, noun classes Duration: 45-60 minutes self-study Materials: This lesson text, optional audio recordings
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Classical Nahuatl is a pro-drop language - "it" as a subject is often not expressed explicitly -
The demonstratives in (this/it) and on (that/it) can function as pronouns -
Third-person objects are marked with prefixes -c- or -qui- on verbs -
Context determines when an explicit pronoun is needed -
Modern Nahuatl varieties show some changes in pronoun usage
10.1 In this/it cuīcatl song cualnēci appears-beautiful (Note: "It (the song) is beautiful" - subject implied in verb)
10.2 Nicnequi I-it-want in this/it āmatl paper ("I want it, this paper" - object marked with -c- in nicnequi)
10.3 On that/it cah is huēyi big ("That/it is big")
10.4 Quicua he/she-it-eats in the tlaxcalli tortilla ("He/she eats it, the tortilla" - object marked with qui-)
10.5 Cualli good in this/it ātl water ("It is good, this water" - copula often omitted)
10.6 Ōnicchīuh I-it-made cē one calli house ("I made it, a house" - past tense with object prefix -c-)
10.7 Tlahuīlli light tlanēci it-dawns ("It dawns" - weather verb with implied subject)
10.8 Mā let xiccua you-it-eat on that ("Eat it, that one" - imperative with object prefix)
10.9 In this/it tetl stone tetic hard ("It is hard, this stone")
10.10 Quittaz he-it-will-see in the ilhuicatl sky ("He will see it, the sky" - future with object prefix)
10.11 Ye already huītza it-comes in the cehualōtl shadow ("It comes already, the shadow")
10.12 Ahmo not nicnequi I-it-want on that ("I don't want it, that one")
10.13 Motlālia it-sits-down in the tochin rabbit ("It sits down, the rabbit" - reflexive verb)
10.14 Ōquimīc he-it-killed cē one cōātl snake ("He killed it, a snake" - preterite with object)
10.15 Huēyi big on that/it tepētl mountain ("It is big, that mountain")
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10.1 In cuīcatl cualnēci. This song is beautiful.
10.2 Nicnequi in āmatl. I want this paper.
10.3 On cah huēyi. That is big.
10.4 Quicua in tlaxcalli. He eats the tortilla.
10.5 Cualli in ātl. This water is good.
10.6 Ōnicchīuh cē calli. I made a house.
10.7 Tlahuīlli tlanēci. It is dawning.
10.8 Mā xiccua on. Eat that.
10.9 In tetl tetic. This stone is hard.
10.10 Quittaz in ilhuicatl. He will see the sky.
10.11 Ye huītza in cehualōtl. The shadow is already coming.
10.12 Ahmo nicnequi on. I don't want that.
10.13 Motlālia in tochin. The rabbit sits down.
10.14 Ōquimīc cē cōātl. He killed a snake.
10.15 Huēyi on tepētl. That mountain is big.
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10.1 In cuīcatl cualnēci.
10.2 Nicnequi in āmatl.
10.3 On cah huēyi.
10.4 Quicua in tlaxcalli.
10.5 Cualli in ātl.
10.6 Ōnicchīuh cē calli.
10.7 Tlahuīlli tlanēci.
10.8 Mā xiccua on.
10.9 In tetl tetic.
10.10 Quittaz in ilhuicatl.
10.11 Ye huītza in cehualōtl.
10.12 Ahmo nicnequi on.
10.13 Motlālia in tochin.
10.14 Ōquimīc cē cōātl.
10.15 Huēyi on tepētl.
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Classical Nahuatl handles third-person reference through several mechanisms, none of which correspond directly to English "it":
1. Zero-Marking (Pro-Drop) Nahuatl is a pro-drop language, meaning subject pronouns are typically omitted when the referent is clear from context. The verb conjugation itself indicates person and number: -
cualnēci = "it appears beautiful" (3rd person singular verb, no explicit subject needed) -
huītza = "it comes" (subject understood from verb form)
2. Demonstrative Pronouns When emphasis or clarity is needed, Nahuatl uses demonstratives that can function as pronouns: -
in = "this/it" (proximal - near the speaker) -
on = "that/it" (distal - away from the speaker)
These can stand alone or modify nouns: -
in cuīcatl = "this song" -
on (alone) = "that one/it"
3. Object Prefixes on Verbs When "it" is the direct object of a verb, Nahuatl uses object prefixes: -
-c- before consonants: nicchīhua = "I make it" -
-qui- before vowels: niquittāz = "I will see it"
These prefixes combine with subject prefixes: -
ni-c-nequi = "I-it-want" = "I want it" -
ō-qui-mīc = "past-it-killed" = "he killed it"
4. Word Order and Context Nahuatl typically follows VSO (Verb-Subject-Object) order, but this is flexible. Context often makes explicit pronouns unnecessary: -
Cualli in ātl = "(It is) good, this water"
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Overusing Pronouns: English speakers often try to translate "it" directly in every instance. Remember that Nahuatl frequently omits pronouns when the referent is clear. -
Confusing Object Prefixes: The choice between -c- and -qui- depends on the following sound, not on the meaning. Students often use the wrong form. -
Misusing Demonstratives: In and on are not exact equivalents of "it." They carry spatial/deictic information (this vs. that) that "it" lacks in English. -
Forgetting Verb Agreement: Even without an explicit pronoun, verbs must agree with their implied subjects in person and number.
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Determine the grammatical role: Is "it" a subject, object, or something else? -
For subjects: Usually omit the pronoun and use the appropriate verb form -
English: "It is raining" → Nahuatl: Quiyahui (rains) -
For objects: Use the appropriate object prefix on the verb -
English: "I see it" → Nahuatl: Niquitta (I-it-see) -
For emphasis or clarity: Use demonstratives in or on -
English: "It (that thing) is mine" → Nahuatl: On nopan cah (That with-me is)
Subject "it": Usually unexpressed (zero pronoun) -
Verb conjugation indicates 3rd person singular -
Demonstratives in/on used for emphasis
Object "it": Marked by prefixes on the verb -
-c- before consonants -
-qui- before vowels -
Combines with tense and subject markers
Possessive "its": Use 3rd person possessive prefix ī- -
īcal = "its house"
After Prepositions: Use demonstratives or full noun phrases -
īpan in = "on it/this" -
ītech on = "to it/that"
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The treatment of third-person reference in Classical Nahuatl reflects broader Mesoamerican linguistic patterns where context and verb morphology carry much of the referential load that pronouns handle in European languages. This system has evolved differently across modern Nahuatl varieties.
Modern Variants:
Huasteca Nahuatl (Eastern/San Luis Potosí region): -
Has developed more frequent use of demonstratives as pronouns -
Yon (from classical on) used more liberally as "it" -
Example: Yon kuali = "It is good" (where Classical might omit the pronoun)
Guerrero Nahuatl (Southern variants): -
Maintains more conservative pronoun-dropping patterns -
Spanish influence has introduced some calques: eso borrowed for "that/it" -
Mixed constructions: Nikita eso = "I see it/that" (Spanish pronoun with Nahuatl verb)
Morelos Nahuatl (Central variants): -
Shows intermediate patterns -
Demonstratives nin (< in) and non (< on) more grammaticalized -
Greater use of explicit pronouns in urban varieties due to Spanish contact
The concept of an inanimate pronoun "it" separate from "he/she" is fundamentally European. Classical Nahuatl's system reflects an animacy hierarchy where: -
Animate beings (humans, animals, spirits) were referenced differently from -
Inanimate objects (which could still have spiritual significance)
This distinction appears in: -
Plural formation (animate vs. inanimate plurals) -
Verb selection (some verbs only for animates) -
Respectful/reverential forms
Modern speakers, especially in urban areas, have adapted to Spanish-influenced patterns where "it" as a distinct category is more prominent. This represents not just linguistic change but conceptual shift in how speakers categorize and reference the world.
The traditional Nahuatl worldview, where many "inanimate" objects possessed spiritual essence (teotl), made the animate/inanimate distinction less absolute than in European languages. Mountains, water, and corn were addressed with the same grammatical respect as living beings in ritual contexts.
In contemporary Nahuatl-speaking communities, education in Spanish has created complex bilingual patterns. Younger speakers often: -
Use more explicit pronouns than traditional speakers -
Calque Spanish constructions: para on = "for that/it" (Spanish para eso) -
Code-switch mid-sentence when referring to modern objects
Elder speakers and rural communities generally maintain more conservative patterns, using context and verb morphology rather than explicit pronouns. This generational difference reflects broader changes in Nahuatl under centuries of contact with Spanish.
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From the Cantares Mexicanos (Song 12, folio 17r), a post-conquest compilation of Nahuatl poetry preserving pre-Columbian traditions:
Ma oc toconittacan in xōchitl, ma oc toncuicacan. Quen conchihua in toyollo? Zan titlahuēliltic, zan tiquehua in tlālticpac. In mach oc nemoa, ayac quitlamītīz in icuīc.
Ma let oc still toconittacan we-it-may-see (toconittakan) in the xōchitl flower (shochitl), ma let oc still toncuicacan we-may-sing (tonkwikakan). Quen how conchihua it-makes (konchiwa) in the toyollo our-heart (toyollo)? Zan only titlahuēliltic we-are-crazed (titlaweliltik), zan only tiquehua we-it-abandon (tikewa) in the tlālticpac earth-on (tlaltikpak). In the-one-who mach indeed oc still nemoa lives (nemoa), ayac no-one quitlamītīz it-will-finish (kitlamitiz) in the icuīc his-song (ikwik).
Ma oc toconittacan in xōchitl, ma oc toncuicacan. Quen conchihua in toyollo? Zan titlahuēliltic, zan tiquehua in tlālticpac. In mach oc nemoa, ayac quitlamītīz in icuīc.
"Let us still behold the flower, let us still sing. What does it do to our heart? We are only crazed, we only abandon it on earth. He who indeed still lives, no one will finish his song."
Ma oc toconittacan in xōchitl, ma oc toncuicacan. Quen conchihua in toyollo? Zan titlahuēliltic, zan tiquehua in tlālticpac. In mach oc nemoa, ayac quitlamītīz in icuīc.
This passage beautifully illustrates several uses of third-person reference: -
Object prefix -con-: In toconittacan = "we-it-see" where "it" refers to the flower (xōchitl). The prefix -con- is a variant of -qui- used with the optative. -
Subject-verb agreement: conchihua = "it makes/does" - here the subject "it" is implied, referring to the experience of seeing flowers and singing. -
Object dropping: tiquehua in tlālticpac = "we abandon (it) on earth" - the object "it" (life, earthly things) is understood from context. -
Possessed noun as pronoun substitute: icuīc = "his song" functions where English might use "it" in a different construction.
The philosophical nature of the text shows how Nahuatl's treatment of reference supports poetic ambiguity. What exactly is "it" that affects our hearts? The flower? The singing? Life itself? The grammar allows all these interpretations simultaneously, creating layers of meaning impossible in English's more explicit pronominal system.
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10.16 Ōmpa there ilhuicac in-sky (ilwikak) motta it-is-seen in the mētztli moon (metztli)
10.17 In the tōchin rabbit (tochin) yehhuātl it/he (yehwatl) ōquittac it-saw (okittak) in the tōnatiuh sun (tonatiuh)
10.18 Īpampa because (ipampa) on that ōquimacac it-gave (okimakak) in the īyōllo its-heart (iyollo)
10.19 Niman then (niman) ōquihuīcac it-took (okiwikak) in the teōtl god (teotl) ilhuicac to-sky (ilwikak)
10.20 Ōmpa there (ompa) ōquitlālilih it-placed (okitlalilih) in the īīxco its-face-on (iishko) mētztli moon (metztli)
10.21 Yehhuātl it (yehwatl) in the āxcān now (ashkan) mochīhua it-becomes (mochiwa) tōchin rabbit (tochin)
10.22 Quēmman when (kemman) tiquittah you-it-see (tikittah), on that cah is (kah) ōmpa there (ompa)
10.23 In the tōchin rabbit (tochin) ahmo not (ahmo) quicāhua it-leaves (kikawa) in the mētztli moon (metztli)
10.24 Mochipa always (mochipa) on that huālnēci it-appears-coming (walnesi) yohuac at-night (yowak)
10.25 Tlā if (tla) ticnequi you-it-want (tikneki) tiquittaz you-it-will-see (tikittaz) in this tlahuīlli light (tlawilli)
10.26 In the pipiltin children (pipiltin) quinēnehuilia they-it-liken (kinenehuilia) on that
10.27 Quīl they-say (kil) in the tōchin rabbit (tochin) ōquinpalēhuih it-helped-them (okinpalewih) in the teōmeh gods (teomeh)
10.28 Ic with-it (ik) on that āxcān now (ashkan) tlanēxtia it-illuminates (tlaneshtia) in the yohualtica in-night (yowaltika)
10.29 Mā let (ma) tiquittacan we-it-see (tikittakan) quen how (ken) motlālia it-sits (motlalia) ōmpa there (ompa)
10.30 Ca for (ka) yehhuātl it (yehwatl) in the tonēhualiztli our-shadow (tonehualiztli) tlālticpac on-earth (tlaltikpak)
10.16 Ōmpa ilhuicac motta in mētztli. There in the sky the moon is seen.
10.17 In tōchin yehhuātl ōquittac in tōnatiuh. The rabbit, it saw the sun.
10.18 Īpampa on ōquimacac in īyōllo. Because of that, it gave its heart.
10.19 Niman ōquihuīcac in teōtl ilhuicac. Then the god took it to the sky.
10.20 Ōmpa ōquitlālilih in īīxco mētztli. There it placed it on the face of the moon.
10.21 Yehhuātl in āxcān mochīhua tōchin. It now becomes a rabbit.
10.22 Quēmman tiquittah, on cah ōmpa. When you see it, that is there.
10.23 In tōchin ahmo quicāhua in mētztli. The rabbit does not leave the moon.
10.24 Mochipa on huālnēci yohuac. Always it appears at night.
10.25 Tlā ticnequi tiquittaz in tlahuīlli. If you want, you will see it in this light.
10.26 In pipiltin quinēnehuilia on. The children liken it to that.
10.27 Quīl in tōchin ōquinpalēhuih in teōmeh. They say the rabbit helped the gods.
10.28 Ic on āxcān tlanēxtia in yohualtica. Therefore it now illuminates in the night.
10.29 Mā tiquittacan quen motlālia ōmpa. Let us see how it sits there.
10.30 Ca yehhuātl in tonēhualiztli tlālticpac. For it is our shadow on earth.
10.16 Ōmpa ilhuicac motta in mētztli.
10.17 In tōchin yehhuātl ōquittac in tōnatiuh.
10.18 Īpampa on ōquimacac in īyōllo.
10.19 Niman ōquihuīcac in teōtl ilhuicac.
10.20 Ōmpa ōquitlālilih in īīxco mētztli.
10.21 Yehhuātl in āxcān mochīhua tōchin.
10.22 Quēmman tiquittah, on cah ōmpa.
10.23 In tōchin ahmo quicāhua in mētztli.
10.24 Mochipa on huālnēci yohuac.
10.25 Tlā ticnequi tiquittaz in tlahuīlli.
10.26 In pipiltin quinēnehuilia on.
10.27 Quīl in tōchin ōquinpalēhuih in teōmeh.
10.28 Ic on āxcān tlanēxtia in yohualtica.
10.29 Mā tiquittacan quen motlālia ōmpa.
10.30 Ca yehhuātl in tonēhualiztli tlālticpac.
This traditional narrative about the rabbit in the moon demonstrates several important patterns for expressing "it" in Nahuatl storytelling:
1. Emphatic Pronoun yehhuātl In narrative, when introducing or emphasizing a character, Nahuatl uses the independent pronoun yehhuātl (he/she/it): -
In tōchin yehhuātl ōquittac = "The rabbit, it saw..." This construction highlights the rabbit as the protagonist.
2. Demonstrative Tracking The narrative uses on (that) to maintain reference across sentences: -
Īpampa on = "Because of that" -
Ic on āxcān = "Therefore it now" This creates cohesion without repeating the noun.
3. Passive and Impersonal Constructions Stories often use passive or impersonal verbs where English would use "it": -
motta = "it is seen" (literally "sees itself") -
huālnēci = "it appears" (literally "comes appearing")
4. Null Subject in Sequential Actions Once a subject is established, subsequent verbs omit the pronoun: -
ōquittac... ōquimacac = "it saw... it gave" The subject (rabbit) is understood throughout the sequence.
5. Reflexive Verbs for State Changes -
mochīhua = "it becomes" (literally "it makes itself") -
motlālia = "it sits" (literally "it places itself")
Common Narrative Formulas: -
quīl = "they say" (reportative evidential) -
niman = "then" (narrative sequencer) -
ca yehhuātl = "for it is" (explanatory formula)
These patterns create a flowing narrative style where reference is maintained through verbal morphology and occasional demonstratives rather than repeated pronouns, characteristic of traditional Mesoamerican oral literature.
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3. Explicit Grammar Instruction: Section D provides clear, comparative grammar explanations designed for English speakers. Rather than assuming linguistic knowledge, these explanations start from English grammar and show how Nahuatl differs.
4. Cultural Contextualization: Understanding a language requires understanding its cultural context. Section E places linguistic features within their cultural framework, including information about modern varieties and historical development.
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Providing complete, self-contained lessons that anticipate learner questions -
Including all necessary grammatical explanation within each lesson -
Using consistent formatting and structure across all lessons -
Building vocabulary and grammar systematically -
Offering multiple passes through the same material in different formats
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Each lesson in this series focuses on a single grammatical element or word type, allowing for deep exploration while maintaining clear focus. The progression is designed to build from basic elements (pronouns, simple verbs) to more complex structures (subordination, aspect, evidentiality).
Learners are encouraged to: -
Work through each section in order -
Read the interlinear text aloud to develop pronunciation -
Copy out sentences by hand to reinforce learning -
Return to earlier lessons as needed -
Use the genre sections for extended reading practice
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