to → tō – the infinitive marker: tō with the inflected infinitive (tō dōnne, tō etenne, tō witanne)
What does "to" mean in Old English, in "he came to help", "I have food to eat", "what are we to do?" or "it is hard to read"?
The Old English word is tō (pronounced /toː/). It is the direct ancestor of Modern English "to", and it has three jobs, as "to" still does. It is a preposition of motion: tō þǣm tūne "to the town". It is an adverb meaning "too": tō earfoþe "too hard". And it marks the infinitive: tō dōnne "to do". This lesson is about the third job.
Old English has two infinitives. The plain infinitive ends in -an: dōn (do), etan (eat), helpan (help), lufian (love). This is the form found in the dictionary, and it stands alone after verbs such as sċeal (must), mæġ (can) and wille (will): iċ sċeal dōn "I must do". The second form is the inflected infinitive. It always follows tō, and it ends in -enne (also spelled -anne): tō dōnne "to do", tō etenne "to eat", tō helpenne "to help", tō lufienne "to love".
The inflected infinitive began as a noun. Tō was the preposition, and -enne was a dative ending, the case that follows tō. Hē cōm tō helpenne meant, at first, "he came for helping". By the time of our texts it was a true infinitive, but it kept its old purpose: it says what something is for, what is to be done, what someone has to do.
So Old English says:
Hē cōm tō helpenne "He came to help" (purpose)
Iċ hæbbe mete tō etenne "I have food to eat" (after a noun)
Hit is tō dōnne "It is to be done, it must be done" (with bēon / wesan)
Sēo bōc is earfoþe tō rǣdenne "The book is hard to read" (after an adjective)
Modern English has kept the little word and lost the ending. "To do" was once tō dōnne; in Middle English the ending was worn down and then dropped, leaving "to do".
A note on spelling: as in earlier lessons, the dots in ċ and ġ are a modern teaching convention for the palatal sounds: ċ = /tʃ/ as in "church", ġ = /j/ as in "yes". The manuscripts write plain c and g. The length marks (ā, ē, ō and so on) are also an editors' convention. Quotations keep their editors' spelling, with the dots added, and with length marks added where the edition used has none (Beowulf, 12.15).
FAQ: What does "to" mean in Old English?
Q: How do you say "to do" in Old English? A: Tō dōnne /toː ˈdoːnne/. After tō the verb takes the ending -enne: tō etenne "to eat", tō gānne "to go", tō lufienne "to love".
Q: Is "tō" with an infinitive always needed? A: No. After sċeal, mæġ, wille, mōt and similar verbs the plain infinitive stands alone, without tō: iċ sċeal gān "I must go", hē wolde gān "he wanted to go".
Q: How do you say "it must be done" in Old English? A: Hit is tō dōnne. Bēon or wesan with tō and the inflected infinitive expresses what must be done or is to be done. The person who must do it goes in the dative: Hwæt is ūs tō dōnne? "What are we to do?"
Key Takeaways
✦ Tō + the inflected infinitive in -enne (or -anne) is the Old English "to do": tō dōnne, tō etenne
✦ The plain infinitive in -an stands alone after sċeal, mæġ, wille, mōt: iċ sċeal gān
✦ Tō + infinitive shows purpose: Hē cōm tō helpenne "He came to help"
✦ Is tō dōnne means "is to be done, must be done"; the doer is dative: ūs is tō dōnne "we have to do"
✦ The same word tō is also the preposition "to" (with the dative) and the adverb "too"
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tō /toː/ — a long, pure o, as in German "so", held a little; not the gliding "oh" of Modern English "toe".
-enne /-enne/ — the ending of the inflected infinitive. Both e's as in "bed"; the double nn is held, as in "pen-knife". The stress never falls on the ending: tō etenne /toː ˈetenne/.
dōnne /ˈdoːnne/, gānne /ˈɡaːnne/ — in the short verbs dōn and gān the ending is simply -nne.
lufienne /ˈluvienne/ — the -ian verbs keep their i: three syllables after the stress.
ġehȳrenne /jeˈhyːrenne/ — the prefix ġe- is never stressed; ȳ is a long "ee" said with rounded lips, as in German "kühn".
wyrċenne /ˈwyrtʃenne/ — ċ as in "church".
drincenne /ˈdriŋkenne/, sprecenne /ˈsprekenne/ — here c is a hard /k/: it was never palatal in these verbs, and the ending does not change it, so it carries no dot.
The Forms: Plain and Inflected Infinitive
dōn (do) · tō dōnne
gān (go) · tō gānne
bēon (be) · tō bēonne
etan (eat) · tō etenne
helpan (help) · tō helpenne
lǣran (teach) · tō lǣrenne
rǣdan (read) · tō rǣdenne
sāwan (sow) · tō sāwenne
ġehȳran (hear) · tō ġehȳrenne
wyrċan (work, make) · tō wyrċenne
leornian (learn) · tō leornienne
lufian (love) · tō lufienne
habban (have) · tō hæbbenne
witan (know) · tō witanne
The ending is written -enne or -anne; both are found, often in the same text. Early West Saxon also writes -onne, as in Alfred's tō wiotonne (Section F). This lesson uses -enne in its own sentences and keeps each editor's spelling in quotations.
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12.1a Hē he cōm came tō to helpenne help
12.1b Hē /heː/ he-NOM.M.SG cōm /koːm/ came-3SG.PRET tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER helpenne /ˈhelpenne/ help-INFL.INF
12.2a Wē we ēodon went tō to etenne eat
12.2b Wē /weː/ we-NOM.PL ēodon /ˈeːodon/ went-1PL.PRET tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER etenne /ˈetenne/ eat-INFL.INF
12.3a Hit it is is tō to dōnne do
12.3b Hit /hit/ it-NOM.N.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER dōnne /ˈdoːnne/ do-INFL.INF
12.4a Nū now is is tīma time tō to gānne go
12.4b Nū /nuː/ now is /is/ is-3SG.PRES tīma /ˈtiːmɑ/ time-NOM.M.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER gānne /ˈɡaːnne/ go-INFL.INF
12.5a Iċ I hæbbe have mete food tō to etenne eat
12.5b Iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM hæbbe /ˈhæbbe/ have-1SG.PRES mete /ˈmete/ food-ACC.M.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER etenne /ˈetenne/ eat-INFL.INF
12.6a Se the lārēow teacher cōm came tō to þǣm the tūne town þā the ċild children tō to lǣrenne teach
12.6b Se /se/ the-NOM.M.SG lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ teacher-NOM.M.SG cōm /koːm/ came-3SG.PRET tō /toː/ to-PREP þǣm /θæːm/ the-DAT.M.SG tūne /ˈtuːne/ town-DAT.M.SG þā /θaː/ the-ACC.PL ċild /tʃild/ children-ACC.N.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER lǣrenne /ˈlæːrenne/ teach-INFL.INF
12.7a Hīe they ēodon went ūt out on into þone the feld field þæt the corn grain tō to rīpenne reap
12.7b Hīe /hiːe/ they-NOM.PL ēodon /ˈeːodon/ went-3PL.PRET ūt /uːt/ out on /on/ into þone /ˈθone/ the-ACC.M.SG feld /feld/ field-ACC.M.SG þæt /θæt/ the-ACC.N.SG corn /korn/ grain-ACC.N.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rīpenne /ˈriːpenne/ reap-INFL.INF
12.8a Hwæt what is is ūs for-us tō to dōnne do
12.8b Hwæt /hwæt/ what-NOM.N.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES ūs /uːs/ us-DAT.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER dōnne /ˈdoːnne/ do-INFL.INF
12.9a Sēo the bōc book is is earfoþe hard tō to rǣdenne read
12.9b Sēo /seːo/ the-NOM.F.SG bōc /boːk/ book-NOM.F.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES earfoþe /ˈæɑrvoðe/ hard tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rǣdenne /ˈræːdenne/ read-INFL.INF
12.10a Hē he wolde wanted gān go ac but hē he næfde not-had nān no hors horse tō to rīdenne ride
12.10b Hē /heː/ he-NOM.M.SG wolde /ˈwolde/ wanted-3SG.PRET gān /ɡaːn/ go-INF ac /ɑk/ but hē /heː/ he-NOM.M.SG næfde /ˈnæfde/ not-had-3SG.PRET nān /naːn/ no-ACC.N.SG hors /hors/ horse-ACC.N.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rīdenne /ˈriːdenne/ ride-INFL.INF
12.11a Se the cyning king sende sent ǣrendracan messengers tō to þǣm the folce people sibbe peace tō to bēodenne offer
12.11b Se /se/ the-NOM.M.SG cyning /ˈkyniŋɡ/ king-NOM.M.SG sende /ˈsende/ sent-3SG.PRET ǣrendracan /ˈæːrendrɑkɑn/ messengers-ACC.M.PL tō /toː/ to-PREP þǣm /θæːm/ the-DAT.N.SG folce /ˈfolke/ people-DAT.N.SG sibbe /ˈsibbe/ peace-ACC.F.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER bēodenne /ˈbeːodenne/ offer-INFL.INF
12.12a Ūs for-us is is miċel great nēod need Godes God's lāre teaching tō to healdenne keep
12.12b Ūs /uːs/ us-DAT.PL is /is/ is-3SG.PRES miċel /ˈmitʃel/ great-NOM.F.SG nēod /neːod/ need-NOM.F.SG Godes /ˈɡodes/ God-GEN.M.SG lāre /ˈlaːre/ teaching-ACC.F.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER healdenne /ˈhæɑldenne/ keep-INFL.INF
12.13a Sōþlīċe truly ūt out ēode went sē the sǣdere sower hys his sǣd seed tō to sāwenne sow
12.13b Sōþlīċe /ˈsoːθliːtʃe/ truly ūt /uːt/ out ēode /ˈeːode/ went-3SG.PRET sē /seː/ the-NOM.M.SG sǣdere /ˈsæːdere/ sower-NOM.M.SG hys /his/ his-GEN.M.SG sǣd /sæːd/ seed-ACC.N.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER sāwenne /ˈsaːwenne/ sow-INFL.INF
12.14a Sē he þe who hæbbe has ēaran ears tō to ġehȳrenne hear ġehȳre let-him-hear
12.14b Sē /seː/ he-NOM.M.SG(DEM) þe /θe/ who-REL hæbbe /ˈhæbbe/ have-3SG.PRES.SUBJ ēaran /ˈæːɑrɑn/ ears-ACC.N.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER ġehȳrenne /jeˈhyːrenne/ hear-INFL.INF ġehȳre /jeˈhyːre/ hear-3SG.PRES.SUBJ
12.15a Moniġ many-a oft often ġesæt sat rīċe mighty-one tō to rūne council rǣd plan eahtedon considered hwæt what swīðferhðum for-the-strong-hearted sēlest best wǣre would-be wið against fǣrgryrum sudden-terrors tō to ġefremmanne do
12.15b Moniġ /ˈmonij/ many-a-NOM.M.SG oft /oft/ often ġesæt /jeˈsæt/ sat-3SG.PRET rīċe /ˈriːtʃe/ mighty-NOM.M.SG tō /toː/ to-PREP rūne /ˈruːne/ council-DAT.F.SG rǣd /ræːd/ plan-ACC.M.SG eahtedon /ˈæɑxtedon/ considered-3PL.PRET hwæt /hwæt/ what-NOM.N.SG swīðferhðum /ˈswiːθferxθum/ strong-hearted-DAT.PL sēlest /ˈseːlest/ best-SUPERL wǣre /ˈwæːre/ were-3SG.PRET.SUBJ wið /wiθ/ against fǣrgryrum /ˈfæːrɡryrum/ sudden-terrors-DAT.M.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER ġefremmanne /jeˈfremmɑnne/ do-INFL.INF
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12.1 Hē cōm tō helpenne. → "He came to help."
12.2 Wē ēodon tō etenne. → "We went to eat."
12.3 Hit is tō dōnne. → "It must be done."
12.4 Nū is tīma tō gānne. → "Now it is time to go."
12.5 Iċ hæbbe mete tō etenne. → "I have food to eat."
12.6 Se lārēow cōm tō þǣm tūne þā ċild tō lǣrenne. → "The teacher came to the town to teach the children."
12.7 Hīe ēodon ūt on þone feld þæt corn tō rīpenne. → "They went out into the field to reap the grain."
12.8 Hwæt is ūs tō dōnne? → "What are we to do?"
12.9 Sēo bōc is earfoþe tō rǣdenne. → "The book is hard to read."
12.10 Hē wolde gān, ac hē næfde nān hors tō rīdenne. → "He wanted to go, but he had no horse to ride."
12.11 Se cyning sende ǣrendracan tō þǣm folce sibbe tō bēodenne. → "The king sent messengers to the people to offer peace."
12.12 Ūs is miċel nēod Godes lāre tō healdenne. → "We have great need to keep God's teaching."
12.13 Sōþlīċe ūt ēode sē sǣdere hys sǣd tō sāwenne. → "Behold, the sower went out to sow his seed." (West Saxon Gospels, Matthew 13:3)
12.14 Sē þe hæbbe ēaran tō ġehȳrenne, ġehȳre. → "He who has ears to hear, let him hear." (West Saxon Gospels, Matthew 13:9)
12.15 Moniġ oft ġesæt rīċe tō rūne; rǣd eahtedon, hwæt swīðferhðum sēlest wǣre wið fǣrgryrum tō ġefremmanne. → "Many a mighty man often sat in council; they weighed a plan, what would be best for the strong-hearted to do against the sudden terrors." (Beowulf, lines 171–174)
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12.1 Hē cōm tō helpenne.
12.2 Wē ēodon tō etenne.
12.3 Hit is tō dōnne.
12.4 Nū is tīma tō gānne.
12.5 Iċ hæbbe mete tō etenne.
12.6 Se lārēow cōm tō þǣm tūne þā ċild tō lǣrenne.
12.7 Hīe ēodon ūt on þone feld þæt corn tō rīpenne.
12.8 Hwæt is ūs tō dōnne?
12.9 Sēo bōc is earfoþe tō rǣdenne.
12.10 Hē wolde gān, ac hē næfde nān hors tō rīdenne.
12.11 Se cyning sende ǣrendracan tō þǣm folce sibbe tō bēodenne.
12.12 Ūs is miċel nēod Godes lāre tō healdenne.
12.13 Sōþlīċe ūt ēode sē sǣdere hys sǣd tō sāwenne.
12.14 Sē þe hæbbe ēaran tō ġehȳrenne, ġehȳre.
12.15 Moniġ oft ġesæt rīċe tō rūne; rǣd eahtedon, hwæt swīðferhðum sēlest wǣre wið fǣrgryrum tō ġefremmanne.
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These are the grammar rules for tō (to) with the infinitive in Old English:
1. Two Infinitives
The plain infinitive ends in -an (etan, helpan, rīdan) or, in the short verbs, -n (dōn, gān, bēon). The inflected infinitive adds -ne to it and stands after tō: tō etenne (12.2), tō helpenne (12.1), tō dōnne (12.3), tō gānne (12.4). The vowel before -nne is usually written e, sometimes a: the Gospels write tō sāwenne (12.13) and tō ġehȳrenne (12.14), Beowulf tō ġefremmanne (12.15), and Alfred tō wiotonne (Section F). Verbs in -ian keep the i: leornian → tō leornienne (12.17).
2. Why -enne? The Old Dative
Tō is a preposition that takes the dative: tō þǣm tūne (12.6), tō þǣm folce (12.11), tō rūne (12.15). The inflected infinitive began as a verbal noun in the dative after this same tō. That is why it always follows tō, and why it has the sense "for doing, towards doing".
3. Purpose: "in order to"
After verbs of going, coming and sending, tō + infinitive says what the journey is for: Hē cōm tō helpenne (12.1), Wē ēodon tō etenne (12.2), þā ċild tō lǣrenne (12.6), þæt corn tō rīpenne (12.7), sibbe tō bēodenne (12.11), hys sǣd tō sāwenne (12.13).
4. "Is to be done": tō with bēon / wesan
Hit is tō dōnne (12.3) means "it is to be done, it must be done". The infinitive is active in form but passive in meaning, as in Modern English "a house to let". The person who must act stands in the dative: Hwæt is ūs tō dōnne? (12.8) "What is for us to do?", that is, "What are we to do?"; Ūs is miċel nēod… tō healdenne (12.12).
5. After Nouns and Adjectives
A noun may be followed by what it is for: tīma tō gānne "time to go" (12.4), mete tō etenne "food to eat" (12.5), nān hors tō rīdenne "no horse to ride" (12.10), ēaran tō ġehȳrenne "ears to hear" (12.14). An adjective may be followed by what it describes: earfoþe tō rǣdenne "hard to read" (12.9), ēaþe tō understandenne "easy to understand" (12.21), ġearu tō leornienne "ready to learn" (12.17).
6. The Plain Infinitive without tō
After sċeal (must, shall), mæġ (can), wille (will, want), mōt (may) and their past forms, the plain infinitive stands alone: Hē wolde gān (12.10), Hwæt sċeal iċ ǣrest dōn? (12.19), Þū sċealt rǣdan (12.21). Modern English keeps this rule: "he can go", never "he can to go".
7. Word Order
The object of the infinitive normally stands before it: þā ċild tō lǣrenne "to teach the children" (12.6), hys sǣd tō sāwenne "to sow his seed" (12.13), Godes lāre tō healdenne (12.12). Nothing normally comes between tō and its infinitive.
8. Three Kinds of tō
Preposition: tō þǣm tūne "to the town" (12.6), with the dative. Infinitive marker: tō dōnne (12.3). Adverb "too": tō earfoþe "too hard" (12.27). All three are the same word, and 12.27 has two of them side by side: tō earfoþe tō rǣdenne "too hard to read".
Common Mistakes
✦ Using the plain infinitive after tō: Incorrect "tō dōn", "tō etan". Correct "tō dōnne", "tō etenne".
✦ Putting tō after sċeal, mæġ, wille: Incorrect "*iċ sċeal tō gānne". Correct "iċ sċeal gān".
✦ Dropping the i of the -ian verbs: Incorrect "*tō leornenne". Correct "tō leornienne".
✦ Putting the doer in the nominative with "is tō dōnne": Incorrect "*Hwæt is wē tō dōnne?". Correct "Hwæt is ūs tō dōnne?" (dative).
✦ Putting the object after the infinitive by English habit: Possible, but less natural, "tō lǣrenne þā ċild". Usual "þā ċild tō lǣrenne".
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Frequency and Register
Tō is one of the commonest words in Old English, in every kind of writing. With the inflected infinitive it is especially at home in instruction: in laws, homilies and teaching texts, where so much is about what is to be done, learned, kept or avoided.
From tō dōnne to "to do"
In Middle English the ending wore away: -enne was reduced, and then lost, until only the little word was left to mark the infinitive. Middle English often strengthened it as "for to", as in the opening of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales: "And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes". The "for" fell away again, but the purpose meaning of the old dative lives on in "he came to help". So does its passive meaning, in "a house to let", "there is much to do" and "what is to be done?", where the subject is the thing done, just as in hit is tō dōnne.
The Germanic Family
German and Dutch made the same construction: German "zu tun", Dutch "te doen", with their own forms of the same preposition. In Old English the dative ending -enne is still there, and shows the history of the construction on its face.
The Language of Learning
Section F is the most famous sentence ever built on tō + infinitive in English: King Alfred's plan to put into English the books "most needful for all men to know". The Old English schoolbooks that followed, Ælfric's Grammar and his Colloquy, are full of what pupils were to learn, read and do: the genre dialogue in this lesson is written in their manner.
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From King Alfred's prose preface to his Old English translation of Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care, written in the late ninth century as a letter to his bishops. Alfred has lamented that learning has decayed in England, and that few can understand their services in English or translate a letter from Latin. Here he proposes his remedy. The text follows Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, in its early West Saxon spelling, with dotted letters added for the learner.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a For for ðȳ that mē to-me ðyncð seems betre better ġif if īow to-you swǣ so ðyncð seems ðæt that wē we ēac also suma some bēċ books
F.1b For /for/ for ðȳ /θyː/ that-INST.N.SG mē /meː/ me-DAT.SG ðyncð /θyŋkθ/ seems-3SG.PRES betre /ˈbetre/ better ġif /jif/ if īow /ˈiːow/ you-DAT.PL swǣ /swæː/ so ðyncð /θyŋkθ/ seems-3SG.PRES ðæt /θæt/ that-CONJ wē /weː/ we-NOM.PL ēac /æːɑk/ also suma /ˈsumɑ/ some-ACC.F.PL bēċ /beːtʃ/ books-ACC.F.PL
F.2a ðā those ðe which nīedbeðearfosta most-needful sīen are eallum all monnum men tō to wiotonne know
F.2b ðā /θaː/ those-NOM.F.PL ðe /θe/ which-REL nīedbeðearfosta /ˈniːedbeθæɑrvostɑ/ most-needful-SUPERL sīen /ˈsiːen/ are-3PL.PRES.SUBJ eallum /ˈæɑllum/ all-DAT.PL monnum /ˈmonnum/ men-DAT.M.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER wiotonne /ˈwiotonne/ know-INFL.INF
F.3a ðæt that wē we ðā them on into ðæt the ġeðīode language wenden turn ðe which wē we ealle all ġecnāwan understand mæġen can
F.3b ðæt /θæt/ that-CONJ wē /weː/ we-NOM.PL ðā /θaː/ them-ACC.F.PL on /on/ into ðæt /θæt/ the-ACC.N.SG ġeðīode /jeˈðiːode/ language-ACC.N.SG wenden /ˈwenden/ turn-1PL.PRES.SUBJ ðe /θe/ which-REL wē /weː/ we-NOM.PL ealle /ˈæɑlle/ all-NOM.PL ġecnāwan /jeˈknaːwɑn/ understand-INF mæġen /ˈmæjen/ can-1PL.PRES.SUBJ
F-B: Full Text with Translation
For ðȳ mē ðyncð betre, ġif īow swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac suma bēċ, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum monnum tō wiotonne, ðæt wē ðā on ðæt ġeðīode wenden ðe wē ealle ġecnāwan mæġen. → "Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we too should turn certain books, those which are most needful for all men to know, into the language that we can all understand."
— King Alfred, Preface to the Old English Pastoral Care (late ninth century); text from Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader
F-C: Old English Text Only
For ðȳ mē ðyncð betre, ġif īow swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac suma bēċ, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum monnum tō wiotonne, ðæt wē ðā on ðæt ġeðīode wenden ðe wē ealle ġecnāwan mæġen.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
tō wiotonne: "to know". This is the inflected infinitive of witan (know), in Alfred's early West Saxon spelling: io for later i, and -onne for the later -anne / -enne. Later texts write tō witanne. The construction is the one in 12.8 and 12.12: the people concerned stand in the dative, eallum monnum "for all men", and the books are "most needful… to know". It is a noun followed by what it is for, as in mete tō etenne (12.5).
ġecnāwan mæġen: the plain infinitive after mæġ (can), without tō, as in rule 6 of Section D. Alfred's one sentence shows both infinitives: tō wiotonne after an adjective, ġecnāwan after a modal verb.
ðæt wē… ðæt wē ðā… wenden: Alfred begins "that we also certain books", breaks off to say which books, and then starts again: "that we them… should turn". The second ðæt wē picks up the first after the long relative clause, and ðā "them" picks up suma bēċ. This is natural in Old English prose, which was written to be read aloud.
sīen, wenden, mæġen: all subjunctive, the mood of what is proposed or thought, not stated as fact.
For ðȳ: "for that (reason)", "therefore", with ðȳ, the instrumental of ðæt.
ġeðīode: "language", a noun built on þēod (people, nation): a language is what a people speaks. On ðæt ġeðīode wendan, "to turn into the language", is Alfred's phrase for translation.
The sentence is the charter of English as a written language of learning. Alfred does not name the books here; the Pastoral Care itself, which this letter introduces, is the first of them. In the next lines he asks that every free-born youth with the means be set to learning until he can read English writing well. The idea of books "for all men to know" in their own tongue is carried, grammatically, by tō wiotonne.
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A schoolroom dialogue in the manner of Ælfric's Colloquy: a master asks a boy what he has to do today, and the boy learns that he has rather a lot to do. (A constructed dialogue for teaching, not a quotation.)
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
12.16a Lārēow master Ēalā O ċild child hwæt what is is þē for-you tō to dōnne do tōdæġ today
12.16b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Ēalā /ˈæːɑlaː/ O-INTERJ ċild /tʃild/ child-VOC.N.SG hwæt /hwæt/ what-NOM.N.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES þē /θeː/ you-DAT.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER dōnne /ˈdoːnne/ do-INFL.INF tōdæġ /toːˈdæj/ today
12.17a Cnapa boy Iċ I eom am ġearu ready tō to leornienne learn
12.17b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM eom /eom/ am-1SG.PRES ġearu /ˈjæɑru/ ready-NOM.M.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER leornienne /ˈleornienne/ learn-INFL.INF
12.18a Lārēow master Þū you hæfst have fela many bōca books tō to rǣdenne read
12.18b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Þū /θuː/ you-NOM.SG hæfst /hæfst/ have-2SG.PRES fela /ˈfelɑ/ many bōca /ˈboːkɑ/ books-GEN.F.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rǣdenne /ˈræːdenne/ read-INFL.INF
12.19a Cnapa boy Hwæt what sċeal shall iċ I ǣrest first dōn do
12.19b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Hwæt /hwæt/ what-ACC.N.SG sċeal /ʃæɑl/ shall-1SG.PRES iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM ǣrest /ˈæːrest/ first dōn /doːn/ do-INF
12.20a Lārēow master Ǣrest first is is þē for-you tō to ġehȳrenne listen and and siþþan afterwards tō to sprecenne speak
12.20b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Ǣrest /ˈæːrest/ first is /is/ is-3SG.PRES þē /θeː/ you-DAT.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER ġehȳrenne /jeˈhyːrenne/ hear-INFL.INF and /ɑnd/ and siþþan /ˈsiθθɑn/ afterwards tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER sprecenne /ˈsprekenne/ speak-INFL.INF
12.21a Þū you sċealt must rǣdan read þās this bōc book hēo it is is ēaþe easy tō to understandenne understand
12.21b Þū /θuː/ you-NOM.SG sċealt /ʃæɑlt/ must-2SG.PRES rǣdan /ˈræːdɑn/ read-INF þās /θaːs/ this-ACC.F.SG bōc /boːk/ book-ACC.F.SG hēo /heːo/ she-NOM.F.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES ēaþe /ˈæːɑðe/ easy tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER understandenne /ˈunderstɑndenne/ understand-INFL.INF
12.22a Cnapa boy Hwonne when mōt may iċ I ūt out gān go tō to etenne eat
12.22b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Hwonne /ˈhwonne/ when mōt /moːt/ may-1SG.PRES iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM ūt /uːt/ out gān /ɡaːn/ go-INF tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER etenne /ˈetenne/ eat-INFL.INF
12.23a Lārēow master Nis not-is nū now tīma time tō to etenne eat
12.23b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Nis /nis/ not-is-3SG.PRES nū /nuː/ now tīma /ˈtiːmɑ/ time-NOM.M.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER etenne /ˈetenne/ eat-INFL.INF
12.24a Þū you hæfst have ġȳt still miċel much weorc work tō to wyrċenne do
12.24b Þū /θuː/ you-NOM.SG hæfst /hæfst/ have-2SG.PRES ġȳt /jyːt/ still miċel /ˈmitʃel/ much-ACC.N.SG weorc /weork/ work-ACC.N.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER wyrċenne /ˈwyrtʃenne/ work-INFL.INF
12.25a Cnapa boy Iċ I eom am hider hither ġecumen come tō to leornienne learn nā not tō to slǣpenne sleep
12.25b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM eom /eom/ am-1SG.PRES hider /ˈhider/ hither ġecumen /jeˈkumen/ come-PAST.PTCP tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER leornienne /ˈleornienne/ learn-INFL.INF nā /naː/ not tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER slǣpenne /ˈslæːpenne/ sleep-INFL.INF
12.26a Lārēow master Nim take nū now þās this ōþre other bōc book hēo it is is tō to rǣdenne read tōdæġ today
12.26b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Nim /nim/ take-IMP.SG nū /nuː/ now þās /θaːs/ this-ACC.F.SG ōþre /ˈoːðre/ other-ACC.F.SG bōc /boːk/ book-ACC.F.SG hēo /heːo/ she-NOM.F.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rǣdenne /ˈræːdenne/ read-INFL.INF tōdæġ /toːˈdæj/ today
12.27a Cnapa boy Hēo it is is mē for-me tō too earfoþe hard tō to rǣdenne read
12.27b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Hēo /heːo/ she-NOM.F.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES mē /meː/ me-DAT.SG tō /toː/ too-ADV earfoþe /ˈæɑrvoðe/ hard tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER rǣdenne /ˈræːdenne/ read-INFL.INF
12.28a Lārēow master Þonne then wille will iċ I þē you helpan help for for þǣm that þe which hit it is is gōd good ōþrum others tō to helpenne help
12.28b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Þonne /ˈθonne/ then wille /ˈwille/ will-1SG.PRES iċ /itʃ/ I-NOM þē /θeː/ you-DAT.SG helpan /ˈhelpɑn/ help-INF for /for/ for þǣm /θæːm/ that-DAT.N.SG þe /θe/ which-REL hit /hit/ it-NOM.N.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES gōd /ɡoːd/ good ōþrum /ˈoːðrum/ others-DAT.PL tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER helpenne /ˈhelpenne/ help-INFL.INF
12.29a Cnapa boy Ēalā O lārēow master nū now is is mē for-me ēaþe easy tō to leornienne learn
12.29b Cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ boy-NOM.M.SG Ēalā /ˈæːɑlaː/ O-INTERJ lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-VOC.M.SG nū /nuː/ now is /is/ is-3SG.PRES mē /meː/ me-DAT.SG ēaþe /ˈæːɑðe/ easy tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER leornienne /ˈleornienne/ learn-INFL.INF
12.30a Lārēow master Sē he þe who wile wants wīsdōm wisdom habban have him for-him is is ǣlċe each dæġe day tō to leornienne learn
12.30b Lārēow /ˈlaːreːow/ master-NOM.M.SG Sē /seː/ he-NOM.M.SG(DEM) þe /θe/ who-REL wile /ˈwile/ wants-3SG.PRES wīsdōm /ˈwiːsdoːm/ wisdom-ACC.M.SG habban /ˈhɑbbɑn/ have-INF him /him/ him-DAT.M.SG is /is/ is-3SG.PRES ǣlċe /ˈæːltʃe/ each-INST.M.SG dæġe /ˈdæje/ day-INST.M.SG tō /toː/ to-INF.MARKER leornienne /ˈleornienne/ learn-INFL.INF
Part B: Natural Sentences
12.16 Lārēow: "Ēalā ċild, hwæt is þē tō dōnne tōdæġ?" → Master: "Child, what do you have to do today?"
12.17 Cnapa: "Iċ eom ġearu tō leornienne." → Boy: "I am ready to learn."
12.18 Lārēow: "Þū hæfst fela bōca tō rǣdenne." → Master: "You have many books to read."
12.19 Cnapa: "Hwæt sċeal iċ ǣrest dōn?" → Boy: "What shall I do first?"
12.20 Lārēow: "Ǣrest is þē tō ġehȳrenne, and siþþan tō sprecenne." → Master: "First you must listen, and afterwards speak."
12.21 "Þū sċealt rǣdan þās bōc; hēo is ēaþe tō understandenne." → "You must read this book; it is easy to understand."
12.22 Cnapa: "Hwonne mōt iċ ūt gān tō etenne?" → Boy: "When may I go out to eat?"
12.23 Lārēow: "Nis nū tīma tō etenne." → Master: "It is not time to eat now."
12.24 "Þū hæfst ġȳt miċel weorc tō wyrċenne." → "You still have much work to do."
12.25 Cnapa: "Iċ eom hider ġecumen tō leornienne, nā tō slǣpenne." → Boy: "I have come here to learn, not to sleep."
12.26 Lārēow: "Nim nū þās ōþre bōc; hēo is tō rǣdenne tōdæġ." → Master: "Now take this other book; it is to be read today."
12.27 Cnapa: "Hēo is mē tō earfoþe tō rǣdenne." → Boy: "It is too hard for me to read."
12.28 Lārēow: "Þonne wille iċ þē helpan, for þǣm þe hit is gōd ōþrum tō helpenne." → Master: "Then I will help you, because it is good to help others."
12.29 Cnapa: "Ēalā lārēow, nū is mē ēaþe tō leornienne." → Boy: "Master, now it is easy for me to learn."
12.30 Lārēow: "Sē þe wile wīsdōm habban, him is ǣlċe dæġe tō leornienne." → Master: "Whoever wants to have wisdom has to learn every day."
Part C: Old English Text Only
12.16 Lārēow: "Ēalā ċild, hwæt is þē tō dōnne tōdæġ?"
12.17 Cnapa: "Iċ eom ġearu tō leornienne."
12.18 Lārēow: "Þū hæfst fela bōca tō rǣdenne."
12.19 Cnapa: "Hwæt sċeal iċ ǣrest dōn?"
12.20 Lārēow: "Ǣrest is þē tō ġehȳrenne, and siþþan tō sprecenne."
12.21 "Þū sċealt rǣdan þās bōc; hēo is ēaþe tō understandenne."
12.22 Cnapa: "Hwonne mōt iċ ūt gān tō etenne?"
12.23 Lārēow: "Nis nū tīma tō etenne."
12.24 "Þū hæfst ġȳt miċel weorc tō wyrċenne."
12.25 Cnapa: "Iċ eom hider ġecumen tō leornienne, nā tō slǣpenne."
12.26 Lārēow: "Nim nū þās ōþre bōc; hēo is tō rǣdenne tōdæġ."
12.27 Cnapa: "Hēo is mē tō earfoþe tō rǣdenne."
12.28 Lārēow: "Þonne wille iċ þē helpan, for þǣm þe hit is gōd ōþrum tō helpenne."
12.29 Cnapa: "Ēalā lārēow, nū is mē ēaþe tō leornienne."
12.30 Lārēow: "Sē þe wile wīsdōm habban, him is ǣlċe dæġe tō leornienne."
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The speakers are named before their words, as in the manuscripts of Ælfric's Colloquy: Lārēow "master, teacher" and Cnapa "boy, servant-lad". When one speaker continues (12.21, 12.24), the name is not repeated.
What is to be done: the master's questions and orders use bēon + tō + inflected infinitive with the dative of the person: hwæt is þē tō dōnne (12.16), Ǣrest is þē tō ġehȳrenne (12.20), hēo is tō rǣdenne tōdæġ (12.26), him is ǣlċe dæġe tō leornienne (12.30). In 12.30 the opening Sē þe "he who" is picked up by the dative him: "he who wants wisdom, for him it is to learn".
Purpose: ūt gān tō etenne (12.22), hider ġecumen tō leornienne, nā tō slǣpenne (12.25). Iċ eom ġecumen is the perfect of a verb of motion, made with bēon, as Lesson 11 noted.
After nouns: fela bōca tō rǣdenne (12.18; fela takes the genitive plural, as in Lesson 11), tīma tō etenne (12.23), miċel weorc tō wyrċenne (12.24).
After adjectives: ġearu tō leornienne (12.17), ēaþe tō understandenne (12.21, 12.29), tō earfoþe tō rǣdenne (12.27), gōd ōþrum tō helpenne (12.28). Helpan takes the dative, so the people helped are ōþrum (12.28) and þē (12.28).
The plain infinitive after modal verbs: sċeal iċ… dōn (12.19), sċealt rǣdan (12.21), mōt iċ… gān (12.22), wille iċ þē helpan (12.28), wile wīsdōm habban (12.30). The boy's two questions show the contrast: Hwæt sċeal iċ dōn? with the plain dōn, and the master's hwæt is þē tō dōnne? with tō dōnne.
Three tō's: tōdæġ "today" (12.16, 12.26) is tō + dæġe, "to (this) day", written as one word; tō earfoþe "too hard" (12.27) is the adverb; all the rest are the infinitive marker.
Nis (12.23) is ne is "is not" fused, as næbbe fuses ne hæbbe (Lesson 11). Nim (12.26) is the imperative of niman "take". Hēo "she" refers to bōc, a feminine noun; Modern English says "it".
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Long and short vowels: tō has a long ō /oː/; the length mark is an editors' sign, but the length is real. Compare short on /on/ with long tō /toː/.
Double consonants: the -nne of the inflected infinitive is held long: dōnne /ˈdoːnne/, etenne /ˈetenne/. So are ll in eallum /ˈæɑllum/, bb in sibbe /ˈsibbe/, þþ in siþþan /ˈsiθθɑn/.
c and ċ: hard /k/ in cōm, cnapa, folce, sprecenne, drincenne; palatal /tʃ/ (written ċ) in ċild, rīċe, wyrċenne, ǣlċe, bēċ. The cn- of cnapa /ˈknɑpɑ/ and ġecnāwan is sounded: both letters are pronounced, as in German "Knabe".
sċ: /ʃ/ as in "ship": sċeal /ʃæɑl/, sċealt /ʃæɑlt/.
f, þ and ð between vowels or voiced sounds are voiced: earfoþe /ˈæɑrvoðe/, ēaþe /ˈæːɑðe/, ōþre /ˈoːðre/, ġeðīode /jeˈðiːode/; at the start and end of a word they are voiceless: þū, wið /wiθ/.
h after a vowel or r is /x/ as in Scottish "loch": eahtedon /ˈæɑxtedon/, swīðferhðum /ˈswiːθferxθum/.
ġ /j/: ġearu, ġȳt, ġehȳrenne, tōdæġ, dæġe, Moniġ, mæġen.
Early West Saxon spellings in Section F: īow for later ēow (you), wiotonne for witanne, sīen for sīn, monnum for mannum, swǣ for swā, ġeðīode for ġeþēode. The Gospels print hys for his (12.13). Editors use ð and þ freely for the same sound.
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