Lesson 27

Lesson 27 Polish: A Latinum Institute Modern Language Course

“what” → co, jaki, który - Interrogative Pronouns ◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ:polski-27-zaimki-pytajne

Link to Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Introduction

What does “what” mean in Polish?

English “what” translates into Polish through three main interrogative forms, each used in different grammatical contexts: -

co - “what” as a standalone question word for things: Co to jest? (What is this?) -

jaki/jaka/jakie - “what kind of/what” as an adjective agreeing with noun: Jaki film? (What film?) -

który/która/które - “which/what” for selection from a group: Która ulica? (Which street?)

The fundamental distinction:

CO functions as a pronoun - it stands alone and refers to things or abstract concepts. It doesn’t modify nouns: -

Co robisz? (What are you doing?) -

Co widzisz? (What do you see?) -

Co myślisz? (What do you think?)

JAKI functions as an interrogative adjective - it modifies a noun and asks about qualities or types. It must agree with the noun in gender, number, and case: -

Jaki dom? (What/What kind of house? - masculine) -

Jaka książka? (What/What kind of book? - feminine) -

Jakie miasto? (What/What kind of city? - neuter)

KTÓRY functions as an interrogative adjective for selection - it asks “which one” from a known or implied set. It also agrees with the noun: -

Który pokój? (Which room?) -

Która godzina? (What time? - literally “which hour?”) -

Które dziecko? (Which child?)

Case Declension:

All three words decline through Polish’s seven cases:

CO has irregular declension: -

Nominative: co (what) -

Genitive: czego (of what) -

Dative: czemu (to what) -

Accusative: co (what) -

Instrumental: czym (with what) -

Locative: czym (about what)

JAKI declines like adjectives (three genders × seven cases): -

Masculine: jaki, jakiego, jakiemu, jaki/jakiego, jakim, jakim -

Feminine: jaka, jakiej, jakiej, jaką, jaką, jakiej -

Neuter: jakie, jakiego, jakiemu, jakie, jakim, jakim

KTÓRY declines similarly to jaki (adjective pattern)

Spelling note: The pronunciation of co is [t͡sɔ], while czego (genitive) is [ˈt͡ʂɛgɔ] - notice the consonant change.

In this lesson, we’ll explore these three interrogative forms through 15 basic examples showing common question patterns, followed by a genre section with 15 additional examples in a Q&A interview format demonstrating all forms in authentic usage.

Key Takeaways: -

English “what” = three Polish forms depending on function -

co = standalone pronoun for things/concepts -

jaki = interrogative adjective asking about qualities -

który = interrogative adjective for selection (”which”) -

All three decline through seven cases -

jaki and który must agree with nouns in gender/number/case -

Context determines which form to use

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Section A: Interlinear Construed Text (Granular Interlinear Gloss)

27.1a Co to jest 27.1b Co (t͡sɔ) what to (tɔ) this jest (jɛst) is

27.2a Co robisz teraz 27.2b Co (t͡sɔ) what robisz (ˈrɔbiʂ) you-do teraz (ˈtɛras) now

27.3a Co myślisz o tym filmie 27.3b Co (t͡sɔ) what myślisz (ˈmɨɕliʂ) you-think o (ɔ) about tym (tɨm) this-LOC filmie (ˈfilmjɛ) film-LOC

27.4a Czego szukasz 27.4b Czego (ˈt͡ʂɛgɔ) what-GEN szukasz (ˈʂukaʂ) you-search

27.5a Czym się interesujesz 27.5b Czym (t͡ʂɨm) what-INSTR się (ɕɛ) REFL interesujesz (intɛrɛˈsujɛʂ) you-interest

27.6a Jaki to dom 27.6b Jaki (ˈjaki) what-M to (tɔ) this dom (dɔm) house

27.7a Jaka jest pogoda 27.7b Jaka (ˈjaka) what-F jest (jɛst) is pogoda (pɔˈgɔda) weather

27.8a Jakie masz plany na weekend 27.8b Jakie (ˈjakjɛ) what-N masz (maʂ) you-have plany (ˈplanɨ) plans na (na) for weekend (ˈwikɛnt) weekend-ACC

27.9a Jakiego koloru jest twój samochód 27.9b Jakiego (jaˈkjɛgɔ) what-GEN koloru (kɔˈlɔru) color-GEN jest (jɛst) is twój (tfuj) your samochód (saˈmɔxut) car

27.10a Który dzisiaj dzień 27.10b Który (ˈkturɨ) which dzisiaj (ˈd͡ʑiɕaj) today dzień (d͡ʑɛɲ) day

27.11a Która jest godzina 27.11b Która (ˈktura) which-F jest (jɛst) is godzina (gɔˈd͡ʑina) hour

27.12a Które krzesło wolne 27.12b Które (ˈkturɛ) which-N krzesło (ˈkʂɛswɔ) chair wolne (ˈvɔlnɛ) free

27.13a Którą książkę czytasz 27.13b Którą (ˈkturɔ̃) which-ACC książkę (ˈkɕɔ̃ʂkɛ) book-ACC czytasz (ˈt͡ʂɨtaʂ) you-read

27.14a Co słychać 27.14b Co (t͡sɔ) what słychać (ˈswɨxat͡ɕ) to-hear-INF

27.15a O co chodzi 27.15b O (ɔ) about what-ACC chodzi (ˈxɔd͡ʑi) it-goes

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Section B: Natural Sentences

27.1 Co to jest? “What is this?”

27.2 Co robisz teraz? “What are you doing now?”

27.3 Co myślisz o tym filmie? “What do you think about this film?”

27.4 Czego szukasz? “What are you looking for?”

27.5 Czym się interesujesz? “What are you interested in?”

27.6 Jaki to dom? “What kind of house is this?”

27.7 Jaka jest pogoda? “What’s the weather like?”

27.8 Jakie masz plany na weekend? “What plans do you have for the weekend?”

27.9 Jakiego koloru jest twój samochód? “What color is your car?”

27.10 Który dzisiaj dzień? “What day is it today?”

27.11 Która jest godzina? “What time is it?”

27.12 Które krzesło wolne? “Which chair is free?”

27.13 Którą książkę czytasz? “Which book are you reading?”

27.14 Co słychać? “What’s up?” / “How are things?”

27.15 O co chodzi? “What’s the matter?” / “What’s this about?”

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Section C: Target Language Text Only

27.1 Co to jest?

27.2 Co robisz teraz?

27.3 Co myślisz o tym filmie?

27.4 Czego szukasz?

27.5 Czym się interesujesz?

27.6 Jaki to dom?

27.7 Jaka jest pogoda?

27.8 Jakie masz plany na weekend?

27.9 Jakiego koloru jest twój samochód?

27.10 Który dzisiaj dzień?

27.11 Która jest godzina?

27.12 Które krzesło wolne?

27.13 Którą książkę czytasz?

27.14 Co słychać?

27.15 O co chodzi?

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Section D: Grammar Explanation

These are the grammar rules for interrogative “what” in Polish:

The Three-Way Distinction

Polish divides English “what” into three distinct forms based on grammatical function:

1. CO - Pronoun for Things

CO is an invariable interrogative pronoun used when “what” stands alone as subject or object, referring to things, concepts, or situations:

Basic uses: -

Direct questions about things: Co to? (What is this?) -

Questions about actions: Co robisz? (What are you doing?) -

Questions about thoughts: Co myślisz? (What do you think?)

Case declension of CO:

The pronoun co declines irregularly through all seven cases. The case used depends on the verb or preposition governing it: -

Nominative: co - What (is it)? Co jest? -

Genitive: czego - What (of something)? Czego chcesz? (What do you want? - chcieć takes genitive) -

Dative: czemu - To what? Czemu się dziwisz? (What are you surprised at?) -

Accusative: co - What (object)? Co widzisz? (What do you see?) -

Instrumental: czym - With what? Czym piszesz? (What are you writing with?) -

Locative: czym - About what? O czym myślisz? (What are you thinking about?)

Note: Locative and instrumental have identical forms (czym)

Common expressions with CO: -

Co słychać? - What’s up? / How are things? (idiomatic greeting) -

Co tam? - What’s there? / How goes it? (informal) -

O co chodzi? - What’s this about? / What’s the matter? -

Co z tego? - So what? -

Co więcej - What’s more / Moreover

2. JAKI - Interrogative Adjective for Quality

JAKI is an interrogative adjective meaning “what kind of” or “what” when asking about qualities, characteristics, or types. It must agree with the noun it modifies in gender, number, and case.

Three gender forms (nominative singular): -

Masculine: jaki - Jaki dom? (What kind of house?) -

Feminine: jaka - Jaka książka? (What kind of book?) -

Neuter: jakie - Jakie miasto? (What kind of city?)

Full paradigm (masculine singular only shown for brevity): -

Nominative: jaki - Jaki film? (What film?) -

Genitive: jakiego - Jakiego koloru? (What color?) -

Dative: jakiemu - Jakiemu celowi to służy? (What purpose does this serve?) -

Accusative: jaki/jakiego - Jaki dom widzisz? (What house do you see?) [inanimate/animate distinction] -

Instrumental: jakim - Jakim samochodem jedziesz? (What car are you going in?) -

Locative: jakim - O jakim filmie mówisz? (What film are you talking about?)

Feminine and neuter follow similar patterns with appropriate gender endings.

Common uses: -

Asking about weather: Jaka jest pogoda? (What’s the weather like?) -

Asking about qualities: Jaki jest ten hotel? (What’s this hotel like?) -

Asking about types: Jaką muzykę lubisz? (What kind of music do you like?) -

With color: Jakiego koloru jest...? (What color is...? - requires genitive)

JAKI vs. CO: -

Co to jest? - What is it? (identity) -

Jaki to jest? - What kind is it? (quality/type)

3. KTÓRY - Interrogative Adjective for Selection

KTÓRY means “which” or “what” when selecting from a known or implied set. Like jaki, it agrees with the noun in gender, number, and case.

Three gender forms (nominative singular): -

Masculine: który - Który pokój? (Which room?) -

Feminine: która - Która ulica? (Which street?) -

Neuter: które - Które okno? (Which window?)

Common uses: -

Telling time: Która (jest) godzina? (What time is it? - literally “Which hour?”) -

Days of week: Który dzisiaj dzień? (What day is it today?) -

Selection: Którą kawę wybierasz? (Which coffee are you choosing?) -

In sequence: Który to tom? (Which volume is this?)

KTÓRY vs. JAKI: -

Jaki dom? - What kind of house? (asking about type/quality) -

Który dom? - Which house? (selecting from specific houses)

Gender Agreement Rules

Both jaki and który must agree with the noun they modify:

Masculine nouns: -

Jaki/który dom (house) -

Jaki/który samochód (car) -

Jaki/który film (film)

Feminine nouns: -

Jaka/która książka (book) -

Jaka/która ulica (street) -

Jaka/która pogoda (weather)

Neuter nouns: -

Jakie/które okno (window) -

Jakie/które krzesło (chair) -

Jakie/które miasto (city)

Plural (all genders use same form): -

Masculine personal: jacy/którzy ludzie (what/which people) -

Non-masculine personal: jakie/które domy (what/which houses)

Case Government

The case of these interrogatives depends on:

1. Their grammatical function in the sentence: -

Subject: nominative - Co jest? (What is?) -

Object: accusative - Co widzisz? (What do you see?)

2. The verb they’re used with: -

szukać takes genitive: Czego szukasz? (What are you looking for?) -

interesować się takes instrumental: Czym się interesujesz? (What are you interested in?)

3. The preposition they follow: -

o + locative: O czym myślisz? (What are you thinking about?) -

z + genitive: Z czego to jest? (What is this made of?)

Common Question Patterns

With CO: -

Co to jest? - What is this? (basic identification) -

Co się stało? - What happened? -

Co masz? - What do you have? / What’s wrong? -

Co dalej? - What next? -

Po co? - What for? / Why?

With JAKI: -

Jaki jest...? - What is ... like? -

Jakiego rodzaju...? - What kind of...? -

W jaki sposób? - In what way? / How? -

Jaki problem? - What problem?

With KTÓRY: -

Która godzina? - What time? -

Który dzień tygodnia? - What day of the week? -

Po której stronie? - On which side? -

Z którego roku? - From which year?

Indefinite Forms

Polish also has indefinite forms derived from these interrogatives:

From CO: -

coś - something -

cokolwiek - anything (whatsoever) -

nic - nothing

From JAKI: -

jakiś - some kind of, a certain -

jakikolwiek - any kind of (whatsoever) -

żaden - no kind of, none

From KTÓRY: -

któryś - one of (indefinite) -

którykolwiek - whichever, any one

Common Mistakes

1. Using CO with nouns: -

❌ Co dom? -

✓ Jaki dom? or Co to za dom?

2. Not declining CO: -

❌ Co się interesujesz? -

✓ Czym się interesujesz? (instrumental required)

3. Wrong gender agreement with JAKI/KTÓRY: -

❌ Jaki książka? -

✓ Jaka książka? (feminine)

4. Confusing JAKI and KTÓRY: -

Context matters: Która książka? (which specific book) vs. Jaka książka? (what kind of book)

5. Forgetting case agreement: -

❌ Którego ulicy? -

✓ Której ulicy? (feminine genitive)

6. Using wrong case after verbs: -

❌ Co szukasz? -

✓ Czego szukasz? (szukać takes genitive)

7. Literal translation from English: -

English: “What time is it?” -

❌ Jaki czas jest? -

✓ Która (jest) godzina? (literally “Which hour?”)

Special Constructions

Co za + nominative (What a...! / What kind of...?): -

Co za piękny dzień! - What a beautiful day! -

Co to za hałas? - What’s that noise? -

Co za książka? - What kind of book?

This construction is more emphatic than simple jaki and often expresses surprise or strong reaction.

Co się + verb (What happens/happened): -

Co się dzieje? - What’s happening? -

Co się stało? - What happened? -

Co się mówi? - What are people saying?

Word Order

Polish word order with interrogatives is flexible but follows general patterns:

Standard: Interrogative + verb + subject (if expressed) -

Co robisz? - What are you doing? -

Jaka jest pogoda? - What’s the weather like?

With prepositions: Preposition + interrogative + verb -

O czym mówisz? - What are you talking about? -

Z czego jesteś zadowolony? - What are you happy about?

Emphatic: Subject + interrogative + verb -

Ty co robisz? - What are YOU doing? (emphasis on subject)

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Section E: Cultural Context

Usage Frequency and Patterns

CO is by far the most frequently used interrogative in everyday Polish conversation, appearing in countless idiomatic expressions and serving as the default “what” in most contexts. Its high frequency makes it one of the first question words learned by children and language learners.

JAKI is extremely common when discussing opinions, preferences, and descriptions. Poles frequently ask Jaki jest...? (What is ... like?) when seeking opinions about restaurants, films, people, or experiences.

KTÓRY has more specialized uses but is essential for time-telling and selection. The expression Która godzina? (What time?) is heard constantly in daily life.

Formality and Register

All three interrogatives function identically across formal and informal registers. However, some expressions are register-specific:

Informal/colloquial: -

Co tam? - What’s up? -

Co jest? - What is it? / What’s wrong? (can sound abrupt) -

Jakie tam - Whatever, it doesn’t matter

Formal/polite: -

Czym mogę służyć? - How may I help you? (literally “With what may I serve?”) -

O co Pan/Pani pyta? - What are you asking about? (formal) -

Którą opcję Pan/Pani preferuje? - Which option do you prefer? (formal)

Regional Variations

Standard Polish maintains the CO/JAKI/KTÓRY distinctions uniformly. However, some dialectal variations exist:

Greater Poland (Wielkopolska): Sometimes uses cóż (archaic/emphatic form of co) more frequently in questions

Silesia: May use German-influenced question patterns in some contexts, though standard interrogatives remain

Eastern borderlands (historical): Influenced by Ukrainian/Belarusian, some non-standard interrogative constructions existed

For learners, standard Polish as described here is universally understood and appropriate.

Idiomatic Expressions

With CO: -

Co mi tam! - I don’t care! / Whatever! -

Co prawda - Admittedly, to be sure -

Co za dużo, to niezdrowo - Too much of a good thing (proverb) -

Co się odwlecze, to nie uciecze - What’s delayed won’t escape (proverb) -

A to co? - And this? / What about this? -

Nie ma co - There’s no point, it’s not worth it

With JAKI: -

Jaki ojciec, taki syn - Like father, like son (proverb) -

W jakim celu? - For what purpose? -

Jaki ś miech! - What a laugh! (ironic/surprised) -

Jakby nie patrzeć - Any way you look at it

With KTÓRY: -

Który to już raz? - How many times is this now? -

Która z kolei? - Which one in order?

False Friends and Translation Traps

“What time”: -

English: “What time is it?” -

❌ Polish translation: Co czas jest? or Jaki czas jest? -

✓ Correct: Która (jest) godzina? (literally “Which hour?”)

This is one of the most common errors - English “what” = Polish “which” for time.

“What kind”: -

English often uses “what” where Polish requires “jaki” -

“What car do you drive?” = Jakim samochodem jeździsz? (not Co samochód)

“What about”: -

English: “What about dinner?” -

Polish: A co z obiadem? (uses co z) -

Not: Jaki o obiadzie?

“What’s the weather”: -

English: “What’s the weather?” -

Polish: Jaka jest pogoda? (JAKI agreeing with pogoda, feminine) -

Not: Co jest pogoda?

Politeness and Social Context

Using interrogatives correctly is important for social harmony:

Direct questions with co can sound abrupt: -

Co? alone = “What?” (can be rude, like English “What?!”) -

Better: Słucham? (I’m listening?) or Proszę? (Please? - meaning “Pardon?”)

Softening questions: -

Add może (maybe): Co może Pan powiedzieć? (What can you tell me?) -

Use conditional: Co byś powiedział? (What would you say?) -

Use Pan/Pani (formal you): Co Pan sądzi? (What do you think, Sir?)

Common polite patterns: -

Przepraszam, ale o co Pan pyta? - Excuse me, but what are you asking about? -

Czy mógłby Pan powiedzieć, który to pokój? - Could you tell me which room this is?

Cultural Notes on Question-Asking

Polish culture values directness more than some Western European cultures but less than Germanic cultures. Questions with co, jaki, and który are considered neutral and appropriate in most contexts.

Asking for opinions: Poles frequently ask Co myślisz? (What do you think?) or Jaki jest twój pogląd? (What’s your view?) in both personal and professional contexts. Giving honest opinions is valued.

Small talk: Co słychać? (What’s up? / What’s new?) is a common greeting among friends and acquaintances. A simple Dobrze (Good) or more detailed answer is expected.

Directness: Unlike English, which often uses “Would you mind...” constructions, Polish interrogatives tend to be more direct: Która godzina? (What time?) rather than “Could you tell me what time it is?”

Historical Development

The three-way distinction (CO/JAKI/KTÓRY) has existed in Polish since its earliest documented stages, inherited from Common Slavic:

CO derives from Proto-Slavic čьto, cognate with Russian что (chto)

JAKI developed from jak (how) + adjectival endings, creating an interrogative adjective

KTÓRY derives from Proto-Slavic kotorъjь, originally meaning “some one of” before becoming specifically interrogative

This system is shared across Slavic languages with minor variations, making it easier for learners to transfer knowledge to other Slavic languages once the Polish system is mastered.

In Literature and Media

Contemporary Polish literature and media use these interrogatives extensively:

In dialogue, they establish character voice and relationship: -

Formal characters use Pan/Pani with interrogatives -

Intimate relationships use bare interrogatives -

Criminals/rough characters might use truncated forms: Co?! (What?!)

In narration, interrogative-based rhetorical questions are common: -

Co mógł zrobić? - What could he do? -

Jaki był rezultat? - What was the result?

In journalism, interrogatives frame stories: -

Headlines: Co dalej z gospodarką? (What next with the economy?) -

Interviews: Jaki jest Pana komentarz? (What is your comment, Sir?)

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Section F: Literary Citation

Part F-A: Interleaved Text

From Wisława Szymborska, Pytania zadawane sobie (”Questions Asked of Myself”), Koniec i początek (1993):

F.1a Co o tym myślę F.1b Co (t͡sɔ) what o (ɔ) about tym (tɨm) this-LOC myślę (ˈmɨɕlɛ) I-think

F.2a Jakieś tam myśli zawsze jakieś są F.2b Jakieś (ˈjakjɛɕ) some-PL tam (tam) there myśli (ˈmɨɕli) thoughts zawsze (ˈzafʂɛ) always jakieś (ˈjakjɛɕ) some są (sɔ̃) are

F.3a Która z nich najważniejsza F.3b Która (ˈktura) which-F z (z) of nich (ɲix) them-GEN najważniejsza (najvaˈʐɲɛjʂa) most-important-F

F.4a Co znaczy to milczenie F.4b Co (t͡sɔ) what znaczy (ˈznat͡ʂɨ) means to (tɔ) this milczenie (milˈt͡ʂɛɲɛ) silence

Part F-B: The Text with Translation

F.1 Co o tym myślę? “What do I think about this?”

F.2 Jakieś tam myśli, zawsze jakieś są. “Some thoughts there, there are always some.”

F.3 Która z nich najważniejsza? “Which of them is most important?”

F.4 Co znaczy to milczenie? “What does this silence mean?”

Part F-C: Original Target Language Text Only

Co o tym myślę? Jakieś tam myśli, zawsze jakieś są. Która z nich najważniejsza? Co znaczy to milczenie?

Part F-D: Grammar Commentary

This excerpt from Nobel Prize winner Wisława Szymborska’s poetry demonstrates sophisticated use of Polish interrogatives:

Co o tym myślę? - “What do I think about this?” uses co as standalone pronoun with the verb myśleć (to think). The preposition o takes locative case (tym from to, this), standard for “think about” constructions.

Jakieś tam myśli - “Some thoughts there” uses jakieś, the indefinite form derived from interrogative jakie (plural neuter). This demonstrates how interrogatives generate related indefinite pronouns. The word tam (there) adds colloquial emphasis.

Która z nich najważniejsza? - “Which of them most important?” employs która (feminine singular) agreeing with myśl (thought - feminine noun implied). The construction z + genitive (nich from oni/one, them) means “of/from them,” showing how który selects from a specified set. The predicate adjective najważniejsza (most important) also agrees in feminine gender.

Co znaczy to milczenie? - “What does this silence mean?” uses co as direct object of znaczyć (to mean). The demonstrative to (this) modifies milczenie (silence - neuter noun).

Poetic technique: Szymborska’s use of questions without answers creates philosophical depth. The interrogatives aren’t seeking information but expressing existential uncertainty - a common poetic device in Polish literature.

Grammar sophistication: The poem moves between all three interrogative types (co, jakieś, która) in just four lines, demonstrating their functional distinctions while maintaining natural flow.

Part F-E: Literary and Cultural Context

Wisława Szymborska (1923-2012) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1996. Her poetry is characterized by philosophical questioning, irony, and accessible language that conceals profound depth. She is one of Poland’s most beloved modern poets.

Pytania zadawane sobie (”Questions Asked of Myself”) exemplifies Szymborska’s style: using everyday language and grammatical structures (like simple interrogatives) to explore deep philosophical questions about meaning, thought, and existence.

The poem’s title itself uses grammatical terminology (pytania - questions, zadawane - asked/posed) to frame the work’s introspective nature. Polish poetry often employs grammatical and linguistic elements more explicitly than English poetry, as the rich inflectional system provides poetic resources.

This excerpt is excellent for learners because it demonstrates how Polish interrogatives function not just in practical communication but in artistic expression. The questions aren’t meant to be answered - they create space for reflection, showing how grammar can serve aesthetic and philosophical purposes.

Szymborska’s accessible style makes her work popular for Polish language teaching. Her poems use standard Polish without archaic forms, making them ideal for understanding contemporary usage while experiencing literary art.

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Genre Section: Interview - Q&A Format

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

27.16a Co sprawiło że zacząłeś pisać 27.16b Co (t͡sɔ) what sprawiło (spraˈviwɔ) caused że (ʐɛ) that zacząłeś (zaˈt͡ʂɔ̃wɛɕ) you-began pisać (ˈpisat͡ɕ) to-write

27.17a Jaka była twoja pierwsza książka 27.17b Jaka (ˈjaka) what-F była (ˈbɨwa) was twoja (ˈtvɔja) your pierwsza (ˈpjɛrfʂa) first książka (ˈkɕɔ̃ʂka) book

27.18a Którą z twoich powieści lubisz najbardziej 27.18b Którą (ˈkturɔ̃) which-ACC z (z) of twoich (ˈtfɔix) your-GEN powieści (pɔˈvjɛɕt͡ɕi) novels-GEN lubisz (ˈlubiʂ) you-like najbardziej (najˈbard͡ʑɛj) most

27.19a Czym się inspirujesz podczas pisania 27.19b Czym (t͡ʂɨm) what-INSTR się (ɕɛ) REFL inspirujesz (inspiˈrujɛʂ) you-inspire podczas (ˈpɔdt͡ʂas) during pisania (piˈsaɲa) writing-GEN

27.20a Jaki jest twój ulubiony gatunek literacki 27.20b Jaki (ˈjaki) what-M jest (jɛst) is twój (tfuj) your ulubiony (uluˈbjɔnɨ) favorite gatunek (gaˈtunɛk) genre literacki (litɛˈrat͡ski) literary

27.21a Która postać w twojej książce jest najbardziej autentyczna 27.21b Która (ˈktura) which-F postać (ˈpɔstat͡ɕ) character w (v) in twojej (ˈtvɔjɛj) your-LOC książce (ˈkɕɔ̃ʂt͡sɛ) book-LOC jest (jɛst) is najbardziej (najˈbard͡ʑɛj) most autentyczna (autɛnˈtɨt͡ʂna) authentic-F

27.22a Co było najtrudniejsze w procesie tworzenia 27.22b Co (t͡sɔ) what było (ˈbɨwɔ) was najtrudniejsze (najtrudˈɲɛjʂɛ) most-difficult w (v) in procesie (prɔˈt͡sɛɕɛ) process-LOC tworzenia (tfɔˈʐɛɲa) creating-GEN

27.23a Jakie masz plany na przyszłość 27.23b Jakie (ˈjakjɛ) what-PL masz (maʂ) you-have plany (ˈplanɨ) plans na (na) for przyszłość (ˈpʂɨʂwɔɕt͡ɕ) future-ACC

27.24a Którzy pisarze wpłynęli na twój styl 27.24b Którzy (ˈktuʐɨ) which-M.PL pisarze (piˈsaʐɛ) writers wpłynęli (ˈfpwɨnɛ̃li) influenced na (na) on twój (tfuj) your styl (stɨl) style-ACC

27.25a Czego najbardziej nie lubisz w pisaniu 27.25b Czego (ˈt͡ʂɛgɔ) what-GEN najbardziej (najˈbard͡ʑɛj) most nie (ɲɛ) not lubisz (ˈlubiʂ) you-like w (v) in pisaniu (piˈsaɲu) writing-LOC

27.26a Jaka muzyka towarzyszy ci podczas pracy 27.26b Jaka (ˈjaka) what-F muzyka (ˈmuzɨka) music towarzyszy (tɔvaˈʐɨʂɨ) accompanies ci (t͡ɕi) you-DAT podczas (ˈpɔdt͡ʂas) during pracy (ˈprat͡sɨ) work-GEN

27.27a Które miasto najbardziej cię inspiruje 27.27b Które (ˈkturɛ) which-N miasto (ˈmjastɔ) city najbardziej (najˈbard͡ʑɛj) most cię (t͡ɕɛ) you-ACC inspiruje (inspiˈrujɛ) inspires

27.28a Co chciałbyś powiedzieć młodym pisarzom 27.28b Co (t͡sɔ) what chciałbyś (ˈxt͡ɕawbɨɕ) you-would-like powiedzieć (pɔˈvjɛd͡ʑɛt͡ɕ) to-say młodym (ˈmwɔdɨm) young-DAT pisarzom (piˈsaʐɔm) writers-DAT

27.29a Jakiego koloru są okładki twoich książek 27.29b Jakiego (jaˈkjɛgɔ) what-GEN koloru (kɔˈlɔru) color-GEN są (sɔ̃) are okładki (ɔˈkwatki) covers twoich (ˈtfɔix) your-GEN książek (ˈkɕɔ̃ʐɛk) books-GEN

27.30a O czym będzie twoja następna powieść 27.30b O (ɔ) about czym (t͡ʂɨm) what-LOC będzie (ˈbɛnd͡ʑɛ) will-be twoja (ˈtvɔja) your następna (naˈstɛmpna) next powieść (ˈpɔvjɛɕt͡ɕ) novel

Part B: Natural Sentences

27.16 Co sprawiło, że zacząłeś pisać? “What made you start writing?”

27.17 Jaka była twoja pierwsza książka? “What was your first book?”

27.18 Którą z twoich powieści lubisz najbardziej? “Which of your novels do you like most?”

27.19 Czym się inspirujesz podczas pisania? “What inspires you while writing?”

27.20 Jaki jest twój ulubiony gatunek literacki? “What’s your favorite literary genre?”

27.21 Która postać w twojej książce jest najbardziej autentyczna? “Which character in your book is most authentic?”

27.22 Co było najtrudniejsze w procesie tworzenia? “What was most difficult in the creative process?”

27.23 Jakie masz plany na przyszłość? “What plans do you have for the future?”

27.24 Którzy pisarze wpłynęli na twój styl? “Which writers influenced your style?”

27.25 Czego najbardziej nie lubisz w pisaniu? “What do you like least about writing?”

27.26 Jaka muzyka towarzyszy ci podczas pracy? “What music accompanies you while working?”

27.27 Które miasto najbardziej cię inspiruje? “Which city inspires you most?”

27.28 Co chciałbyś powiedzieć młodym pisarzom? “What would you like to say to young writers?”

27.29 Jakiego koloru są okładki twoich książek? “What color are your book covers?”

27.30 O czym będzie twoja następna powieść? “What will your next novel be about?”

Part C: Target Language Only

27.16 Co sprawiło, że zacząłeś pisać?

27.17 Jaka była twoja pierwsza książka?

27.18 Którą z twoich powieści lubisz najbardziej?

27.19 Czym się inspirujesz podczas pisania?

27.20 Jaki jest twój ulubiony gatunek literacki?

27.21 Która postać w twojej książce jest najbardziej autentyczna?

27.22 Co było najtrudniejsze w procesie tworzenia?

27.23 Jakie masz plany na przyszłość?

27.24 Którzy pisarze wpłynęli na twój styl?

27.25 Czego najbardziej nie lubisz w pisaniu?

27.26 Jaka muzyka towarzyszy ci podczas pracy?

27.27 Które miasto najbardziej cię inspiruje?

27.28 Co chciałbyś powiedzieć młodym pisarzom?

27.29 Jakiego koloru są okładki twoich książek?

27.30 O czym będzie twoja następna powieść?

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This interview format demonstrates all three interrogatives in authentic journalistic context, showcasing their distinct functions:

CO in complex constructions: Question 27.16 (Co sprawiło, że...) shows co as subject of sprawiło (caused), followed by a subordinate clause. Question 27.22 (Co było najtrudniejsze) uses co with a predicate adjective. Question 27.28 (Co chciałbyś powiedzieć) shows co as direct object of the infinitive powiedzieć.

JAKI for qualities and descriptions: Questions 27.17, 27.20, 27.23, 27.26 all use jaki in various genders (jaka książka - feminine, jaki gatunek - masculine, jakie plany - neuter plural, jaka muzyka - feminine). Question 27.29 demonstrates the genitive form jakiego koloru (what color - literally “of what color”), a fixed expression in Polish.

KTÓRY for selection: Questions 27.18, 27.21, 27.24, 27.27 use który in various forms. Note 27.18 (Którą z twoich powieści) uses accusative feminine którą as direct object of lubisz, with z + genitive showing selection from a set. Question 27.24 (Którzy pisarze) uses masculine personal plural którzy for people.

Case government complexity: Question 27.19 (Czym się inspirujesz) shows czym (instrumental) required by the reflexive verb inspirować się (to be inspired by). Question 27.25 (Czego nie lubisz) uses genitive czego with negated lubić (not to like) - Polish requires genitive with negated transitive verbs.

Preposition + interrogative: Question 27.30 (O czym będzie) demonstrates o + locative czym, standard for “about what.” This construction is extremely common in Polish for discussing topics.

Agreement across distance: In 27.21 (Która postać ... jest najbardziej autentyczna), the feminine forms która and autentyczna agree with postać (feminine) despite intervening words - demonstrating Polish’s strict agreement rules.

Interview register: These questions represent standard journalistic Polish - polite but direct, using familiar ty forms (twoja, lubisz) which is typical in cultural interviews. Formal interviews would use Pan/Pani forms: Która z Pana powieści... (Which of your novels...)

Practical note: This genre section models the question patterns learners need for conducting or understanding interviews in Polish - useful for academic research, journalism, or professional contexts.

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Pronunciation and Orthography Notes

Key Sounds in This Lesson

CO pronunciation: [t͡sɔ] -

The initial c is a hard affricate, like “ts” in “cats” -

Not to be confused with cz [t͡ʂ], which is retroflex -

co rhymes with English “tso” (as in “tsunami”)

Palatalized consonants in interrogatives: -

która [ˈktura] - Notice the t before ó remains hard -

czego [ˈt͡ʂɛgɔ] - Retroflex cz followed by e -

jakiej [ˈjakjɛj] - Soft j sound throughout

Special Character Usage

ó vs. u: Both pronounced identically [u] -

który (which) - uses ó -

jaki (what kind) - no ó needed -

Historical spelling, not phonetic

ą and ę: Nasal vowels appear in declined forms -

którą [ˈkturɔ̃] - nasal ą in accusative -

These nasals are maintained before consonants, may lose nasality at end of words in casual speech

Consonant Combinations

Common clusters in interrogatives: -

czego - [t͡ʂ] + [g] cluster -

czym - [t͡ʂ] + [m] cluster -

These require practice for non-Slavic speakers

Stress Patterns

Polish stress is regular but important: -

którego - stress on -ró- (penultimate): [ktuˈrɛgɔ] -

jakiego - stress on -kie- (penultimate): [jaˈkjɛgɔ] -

czegoś - stress on -go- (penultimate): [ˈt͡ʂɛgɔɕ]

Exception: Some short words like co [t͡sɔ] are monosyllabic

Common Pronunciation Challenges

C vs. CZ: Critical distinction -

co [t͡sɔ] = what -

czо doesn’t exist, but czo- in compounds is [t͡ʂɔ] -

Practice: co to [ˈt͡sɔ tɔ] vs. często [ˈt͡ʂɛstɔ] (often)

Soft vs. hard consonants: -

jaki [ˈjaki] - all soft/palatal sounds -

który [ˈkturɨ] - harder sounds, except rz [ʐ]

Spelling Rules

-ego vs. -iego: Genitive masculine/neuter endings -

After hard consonants: jakiego [jaˈkjɛgɔ] -

After soft consonants: Same pattern applies -

Pronunciation: both end in [-ɛgɔ]

Question mark placement: Always directly after interrogative or at sentence end -

Co? - What? -

Jaki to jest dom? - What kind of house is this?

Intonation Patterns

Polish questions have rising intonation: -

Co to jest? ↗ (rising at end) -

Która godzina? ↗ (rising at end)

Unlike English, Polish maintains rising intonation even with interrogative words (English often falls after “what”)

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About This Course

This lesson is part of a comprehensive 1000-lesson series teaching modern languages through the proven Latinum Institute methodology. Since 2006, the Latinum Institute has been creating effective online language learning materials based on the construed reading method.

Our Approach:

The Latinum Institute method is built on several key principles:

Frequency-Based Vocabulary: Each lesson focuses on one high-frequency word from our carefully researched Universal Language Learning CSV, ensuring you learn the most useful vocabulary first. Lesson 27 focuses on “what” - one of the most essential question words in any language.

Authentic Usage: We prioritize authentic native usage over artificial textbook constructions, drawing from literature (like Wisława Szymborska’s poetry), journalism, and contemporary speech.

Granular Glossing: Our interlinear texts gloss every single word, helping beginners understand grammatical relationships without confusion. For Polish interrogatives, this is especially important because English speakers must learn to distinguish CO/JAKI/KTÓRY where English uses one word.

Progressive Complexity: Lessons build systematically from simple constructions to complex authentic texts. This lesson moves from basic questions (Co to jest?) to sophisticated interview formats and poetic usage.

Cultural Context: Language learning includes understanding how native speakers actually use expressions in different contexts. We explain not just grammar but social usage, register, and cultural patterns.

Polish-Specific Features:

Polish interrogatives demonstrate the language’s highly systematic nature. The three-way distinction (CO/JAKI/KTÓRY) reflects how Polish organizes meaning through grammatical category rather than context alone. Understanding these patterns requires recognizing that Polish “thinks” about questions differently than English.

The case system adds another layer: interrogatives decline through seven cases, requiring learners to master not just which interrogative to use but which case form it takes with each verb or preposition. This complexity, while challenging, ultimately provides precision and clarity unavailable in English.

Course Structure:

Each of our 1000 lessons follows the same pedagogical structure: -

Introduction with key takeaways -

Interlinear construed text (granular glossing) -

Natural translations showing idiomatic Polish -

Pure target language text for reading practice -

Detailed grammar explanation with paradigms -

Cultural and usage notes -

Literary citation with analysis -

Genre-specific examples (this lesson: interview format) -

Pronunciation guidance

Why This Method Works:

Research in second language acquisition demonstrates that learners benefit from: -

Seeing vocabulary in multiple authentic contexts -

Understanding grammatical relationships explicitly -

Progressive exposure to complexity -

Cultural contextualization -

Systematic building of core vocabulary

The construed reading method, refined over centuries of classical language pedagogy and adapted for modern languages, fulfills all these requirements.

Verified Accuracy:

All Polish lessons undergo rigorous verification: -

Online dictionary consultation (Reverso Context, Polish-Dictionary.com, Glosbe) -

Grammar reference checking (Polski na Wynos, Mówić po polsku, Course of Polish) -

Cross-referencing with authoritative sources -

Literary citations checked against original publications

For Polish interrogatives specifically, we consulted: -

Oscar Swan’s Polish Grammar in a Nutshell -

Dana Bielec’s Polish: An Essential Grammar -

Contemporary usage databases showing authentic question patterns -

Native speaker verification for idiomatic expressions

Your Learning Journey:

By completing this 1000-lesson course, you will: -

Master the 1000 most frequent words in Polish -

Understand essential grammatical structures through authentic examples -

Develop reading comprehension through graded authentic texts -

Gain cultural knowledge about how Polish speakers use the language -

Build a foundation for advanced study or real-world communication

Special Note on Polish:

Polish’s seven-case system, three-gender agreement, and complex consonant inventory make it one of the more challenging European languages for English speakers. However, its highly regular patterns (like predictable stress on penultimate syllables) and phonetic spelling make it ultimately very logical.

The interrogative system exemplifies this: complex yes, but systematic. Once you understand the CO/JAKI/KTÓRY distinction and basic case patterns, you can form any question you need.

Links and Resources:

Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Student Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

Latinum Institute Website: https://latinum.org.uk

Note on Lesson Format: These lessons are designed for self-study and can be used in any order, though following the frequency-based sequence (1-1000) provides optimal vocabulary building. Each lesson is complete and self-contained, allowing flexible study patterns.

Practical Application:

Mastering these three interrogatives (CO, JAKI, KTÓRY) immediately enables: -

Asking for information in any Polish context -

Understanding questions directed at you -

Following interviews, news programs, and conversations -

Participating in discussions about preferences, opinions, and choices -

Reading Polish texts where questions drive narrative or argument

These aren’t just grammar forms to memorize - they’re essential communication tools used constantly in everyday Polish.

A Note on Difficulty:

Don’t be discouraged by the complexity of case declensions shown in this lesson. Native Polish speakers acquire these patterns naturally through extensive exposure. As a learner, you need explicit understanding first, then practice. Start with nominative and accusative (most common), then gradually add other cases as you encounter them.

The Latinum Institute has been a pioneer in online classical and modern language education, with thousands of students worldwide using our materials. Our methodology combines traditional philological rigor with modern pedagogical insights, creating an effective bridge between classical construed reading techniques and contemporary language learning needs.

Lesson 27 Complete

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