For autodidact students of South Levantine Arabic, the first word is "the," and in Arabic "the" is not a separate word at all. It is a prefix, ال (il-), written joined to the front of its noun: دار (dār) is "a house," الدار (id-dār) is "the house"; مفتاح (miftāḥ) is "key," المفتاح (il-miftāḥ) is "the key." The two letters ا and ل never change for gender or number: الولد (il-walad), "the boy"; البنت (il-bint), "the girl"; الولاد (il-wlād), "the children."
What does change is the sound. Before about half the consonants of the alphabet, the l of the article is swallowed by the first consonant of the noun, which is then pronounced double. These are the "sun letters," named after الشمس (iš-šams), "the sun," which is said iš-šams and never il-šams. The other consonants are the "moon letters," named after القمر (il-ʔamar), "the moon," where the l is heard. The spelling does not change: the Arabic script always writes ال, whatever is said.
The vowel of the article is short. At the start of a sentence, or after a word ending in a consonant, it is heard as il-: il-walad, id-dār, and so also an adjective after its noun: الدار الكبيرة (id-dār il-kbīre), "the big house." After a word that ends in a vowel it drops, and only the l (or the doubled sun letter) is left: اشترى الدار is štara d-dār, "he bought the house"; راحوا عالمدرسة is rāḥu ʿal-madrase, "they went to school."
South Levantine uses "the" more than English does. Things spoken of in general take the article: بنشرب القهوة الصبح (bnišrab il-ʔahwe iṣ-ṣubḥ) is "we drink coffee in the morning," literally "we drink the coffee the morning." Many place names carry it too: القدس (il-ʔuds), Jerusalem; الخليل (il-khalīl), Hebron; السلط (is-salṭ), Salt. And there is no word for "a": a noun without ال is indefinite, so دار is "a house."
Script note: ال is two letters, alif ا and lam ل. Alif does not join to the letter after it, so ال is written as a little unit of its own and lam then joins the noun: ال + دار = الدار. The prepositions ب (b-, "in, at, with") and ل (l-, "to, for") are written joined to the article: بالجامعة (bil-jāmʿa), "at the university."
Key Takeaways: - ال (il-): "the." A prefix joined to its noun, the same for every gender and number - Sun letters (t, d, r, z, s, š, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, l, n): the l is assimilated and the consonant doubles: الدار (id-dār), السيارة (is-sayyāra), الشاي (iš-šāy) - Moon letters (the rest, and here also ج j): the l is heard: المفتاح (il-miftāḥ), القهوة (il-ʔahwe), الجو (il-jaww) - The spelling is always ال; only the pronunciation changes - After a vowel, the i of il- drops: اشترى الدار (štara d-dār) - General statements take the article: بنشرب القهوة (bnišrab il-ʔahwe), "we drink coffee" - There is no "a": دار (dār), "a house" - An adjective after a definite noun takes the article too: الدار الكبيرة (id-dār il-kbīre), "the big house" - "This" comes before the article: هاد الكتاب (hād il-ktāb), "this book"
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1.1a السيارة the-car جديدة new
1.1b is-sayyāra (is-say-YAA-ra) the-car.F jdīde (j-DEE-deh) new-F.SG
1.2a الأكل the-food زاكي tasty
1.2b il-ʔakil (il-A-kil) the-food.M zāki (ZAA-ki) tasty-M.SG
1.3a الجو the-weather حلو nice
1.3b il-jaww (il-JAWW) the-weather.M ḥilu (HI-lu) nice-M.SG
1.4a الدار the-house بعيدة far
1.4b id-dār (id-DAAR) the-house.F bʿīde (b-ʿEE-deh) far-F.SG
1.5a وين where المفتاح the-key
1.5b wēn (wayn) where il-miftāḥ (il-mif-TAAH) the-key.M
1.6a البنت the-girl بالجامعة at-the-university
1.6b il-bint (il-BINT) the-girl bil-jāmʿa (bil-JAAM-ʿa) at-the-university.F
1.7a إحنا we ساكنين living بالقدس in-the-Jerusalem
1.7b ʔiḥna (IH-na) we sāknīn (saak-NEEN) living-PL bil-ʔuds (bil-UDS) in-the-Jerusalem
1.8a الولاد the-children راحوا went عالمدرسة to-the-school
1.8b il-wlād (il-WLAAD) the-children.PL rāḥu (RAA-hu) go-PAST.3PL ʿal-madrase (ʿal-MAD-ra-seh) to-the-school.F
1.9a هاد this الكتاب the-book إلي to-me
1.9b hād (haad) this.M il-ktāb (il-KTAAB) the-book.M ʔili (I-li) to-me
1.10a بدي I-want أشرب I-drink الشاي the-tea هلأ now
1.10b baddi (BAD-di) want-1SG ʔašrab (ASH-rab) drink-PRES.1SG iš-šāy (ish-SHAAY) the-tea hallaʔ (HAL-la') now
1.11a الباص the-bus بيطلع leaves من from البلد the-town الساعة the-hour تسعة nine
1.11b il-bāṣ (il-BAAS) the-bus biṭlaʿ (BIT-laʿ) leave-PRES.3M.SG min (min) from il-balad (il-BA-lad) the-town.F is-sāʿa (is-SAA-ʿa) the-hour.F tisʿa (TIS-ʿa) nine
1.12a الصبح the-morning بنشرب we-drink القهوة the-coffee عالبلكونة on-the-balcony
1.12b iṣ-ṣubḥ (is-SUBH) the-morning bnišrab (b-NISH-rab) drink-PRES.1PL il-ʔahwe (il-AH-weh) the-coffee.F ʿal-balkōne (ʿal-bal-KOH-neh) on-the-balcony.F
1.13a المطعم the-restaurant اللي that جنب next-to البنك the-bank مسكر closed
1.13b il-maṭʿam (il-MAT-ʿam) the-restaurant.M illi (IL-li) REL janb (janb) next-to il-bank (il-BANK) the-bank msakkar (m-SAK-kar) closed-M.SG
1.14a أبوي my-father اشترى bought الدار the-house الكبيرة the-big اللي that بالبلد in-the-village
1.14b ʔabūy (a-BOOY) father-my štara (SHTA-ra) buy-PAST.3M.SG d-dār (d-DAAR) the-house.F il-kbīre (il-k-BEE-reh) the-big-F.SG illi (IL-li) REL bil-balad (bil-BA-lad) in-the-village.F
1.15a البنات the-girls حكوا talked مع with المعلمة the-teacher عن about الامتحان the-exam
1.15b il-banāt (il-ba-NAAT) the-girls.PL ḥaku (HA-ku) talk-PAST.3PL maʿ (maʿ) with il-mʿallme (il-m-ʿALL-meh) the-teacher.F ʿan (ʿan) about il-imtiḥān (il-im-ti-HAAN) the-exam.M
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1.1 السيارة جديدة. (is-sayyāra jdīde) "The car is new." 1.2 الأكل زاكي. (il-ʔakil zāki) "The food is delicious." 1.3 الجو حلو. (il-jaww ḥilu) "The weather is nice." 1.4 الدار بعيدة. (id-dār bʿīde) "The house is far away." 1.5 وين المفتاح؟ (wēn il-miftāḥ?) "Where's the key?" 1.6 البنت بالجامعة. (il-bint bil-jāmʿa) "The girl is at the university." 1.7 إحنا ساكنين بالقدس. (ʔiḥna sāknīn bil-ʔuds) "We live in Jerusalem." 1.8 الولاد راحوا عالمدرسة. (il-wlād rāḥu ʿal-madrase) "The children have gone to school." 1.9 هاد الكتاب إلي. (hād il-ktāb ʔili) "This book is mine." 1.10 بدي أشرب الشاي هلأ. (baddi ʔašrab iš-šāy hallaʔ) "I want to drink the tea now." 1.11 الباص بيطلع من البلد الساعة تسعة. (il-bāṣ biṭlaʿ min il-balad is-sāʿa tisʿa) "The bus leaves from town at nine o'clock." 1.12 الصبح بنشرب القهوة عالبلكونة. (iṣ-ṣubḥ bnišrab il-ʔahwe ʿal-balkōne) "In the morning we drink coffee on the balcony." 1.13 المطعم اللي جنب البنك مسكر. (il-maṭʿam illi janb il-bank msakkar) "The restaurant next to the bank is closed." 1.14 أبوي اشترى الدار الكبيرة اللي بالبلد. (ʔabūy štara d-dār il-kbīre illi bil-balad) "My father bought the big house in the village." 1.15 البنات حكوا مع المعلمة عن الامتحان. (il-banāt ḥaku maʿ il-mʿallme ʿan il-imtiḥān) "The girls talked to the teacher about the exam."
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1.1 السيارة جديدة. 1.2 الأكل زاكي. 1.3 الجو حلو. 1.4 الدار بعيدة. 1.5 وين المفتاح؟ 1.6 البنت بالجامعة. 1.7 إحنا ساكنين بالقدس. 1.8 الولاد راحوا عالمدرسة. 1.9 هاد الكتاب إلي. 1.10 بدي أشرب الشاي هلأ. 1.11 الباص بيطلع من البلد الساعة تسعة. 1.12 الصبح بنشرب القهوة عالبلكونة. 1.13 المطعم اللي جنب البنك مسكر. 1.14 أبوي اشترى الدار الكبيرة اللي بالبلد. 1.15 البنات حكوا مع المعلمة عن الامتحان.
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These are the grammar rules for ال (il-), "the."
One form for everything. ال does not change for masculine or feminine, singular or plural: المفتاح (il-miftāḥ, the key, M), السيارة (is-sayyāra, the car, F), الولاد (il-wlād, the children, PL). It is always written joined to its word, never as a separate word.
Sun letters and moon letters. The pronunciation of the l depends on the first consonant of the noun. - Sun letters: ت t, د d, ر r, ز z, س s, ش š, ص ṣ, ض ḍ, ط ṭ, ل l, ن n, and ث ذ ظ in the words that keep them from Standard Arabic. The l becomes that consonant and the consonant is doubled: الدار (id-dār), السيارة (is-sayyāra), الساعة (is-sāʿa), الشاي (iš-šāy), الصبح (iṣ-ṣubḥ). - Moon letters: all the others, among them ب b, ح ḥ, خ kh, ع ʿ, غ gh, ف f, ق ʔ, ك k, م m, و w, ي y, and the hamza. The l is heard: البنت (il-bint), الباص (il-bāṣ), القهوة (il-ʔahwe), الكتاب (il-ktāb), المفتاح (il-miftāḥ), الولاد (il-wlād), الأكل (il-ʔakil). - ج j: in Palestine and Jordan most speakers say it like the j of "jam," and it is a moon letter, as in Standard Arabic: الجو (il-jaww), الجامعة (il-jāmʿa) (1.3, 1.6). In Damascus and Beirut, where it sounds like the s of "pleasure," it is often treated as a sun letter (ij-jāmʿa); this course follows southern usage.
il- and l-. At the start of a sentence, or after a word ending in a consonant, the article is il-: il-bint, min il-balad, id-dār il-kbīre. After a word ending in a vowel it loses its i: الدار after اشترى is štara d-dār (1.14). Where the noun itself begins with a vowel, as الامتحان (il-imtiḥān), "the exam," does, the l simply runs on into it (1.15). This course's transliteration writes what is said; the Arabic script always writes ال.
Prepositions that join the article. Three short prepositions fuse with ال in speech, and two of them in writing as well. - ب (b-), "in, at, with": ب + الجامعة = بالجامعة (bil-jāmʿa), "at the university" (1.6); بالقدس (bil-ʔuds), "in Jerusalem" (1.7). - ل (l-), "to, for": the alif of the article is dropped and two lams meet: ل + الدار = للدار (lid-dār), "to the house." - على (ʿala), "on, to," loses its last syllable and is written joined: على + المدرسة = عالمدرسة (ʿal-madrase), "to school" (1.8); على + البلكونة = عالبلكونة (ʿal-balkōne), "on the balcony" (1.12). Before a sun letter the l is swallowed as usual: عالدار (ʿad-dār), "to the house." Both spellings, على المدرسة and عالمدرسة, are common; this course writes the joined form, as it is said.
No copula in the present. "The car is new" is simply السيارة جديدة (is-sayyāra jdīde): a definite noun followed by an adjective without the article makes a sentence (1.1–1.4). If the adjective also takes the article, the result is a phrase, not a sentence: الدار الكبيرة (id-dār il-kbīre) is "the big house" (1.14). This difference, article or no article on the adjective, is the whole difference between "the house is big" and "the big house."
Agreement. An adjective agrees with its noun in gender: السيارة (F) جديدة, الدار (F) بعيدة, الأكل (M) زاكي, الجو (M) حلو. دار, "house," is feminine. Feminine words usually end in ة. In Palestinian speech it is pronounced -e after most consonants and -a after the throat and emphatic sounds: jdīde, madrase, but jāmʿa, sāʿa, sayyāra. In Jordan many speakers say -a throughout: jdīda, madrasa.
Generic use. Where English uses no article for things in general ("we drink coffee"), South Levantine uses ال: بنشرب القهوة (1.12). Times of day take it too: الصبح (iṣ-ṣubḥ), "in the morning" (1.12), and the clock: الساعة تسعة (is-sāʿa tisʿa), "at nine o'clock," literally "the hour nine" (1.11).
Place names. Some place names have the article as part of the name and keep it always: القدس (il-ʔuds), Jerusalem (1.7); الخليل (il-khalīl), Hebron; الزرقاء (iz-zarʔa), Zarqa; السلط (is-salṭ), Salt. Others never take it: عمان (ʿammān), Amman; نابلس (nāblus), Nablus. البلد (il-balad) is "the town, the home village" (1.14); in Amman, il-balad is downtown, the old city centre (1.11).
No word for "a." South Levantine has no indefinite article: a noun without ال is indefinite. "A house" is دار, "a car" is سيارة.
Demonstratives and the article. "This book" is هاد الكتاب (hād il-ktāb), "this the-book": the demonstrative stands before the noun, and the noun keeps its article (1.9). The feminine is هاي (hāy): هاي السيارة (hāy is-sayyāra), "this car." Without the article, هاد الكتاب would not be a phrase: هاد كتاب is a sentence, "this is a book." In Jordan "this" is also said هاظ (hāḍ).
Possession. With a pronoun ending, as in أبوي (ʔabūy, my father), a noun is already definite and never takes ال: never \*الأبوي (1.14). "Mine" in "this book is mine" is إلي (ʔili), "to me" (1.9).
Relative clauses. After a definite noun, "that, which, who" is اللي (illi): المطعم اللي جنب البنك (1.13), الدار الكبيرة اللي بالبلد (1.14). اللي never changes, and itself contains the old article.
Common Mistakes: - Saying il-šāy or il-dār. Before a sun letter the l is not pronounced: iš-šāy, id-dār. - Writing the assimilation. The script always writes ال: الدار, never \الددار or \اددار. - Dropping the article in general statements because English does: \*بنشرب قهوة الصبح for "we drink coffee in the morning." Say بنشرب القهوة الصبح. - Putting the article on the adjective when you mean a sentence: الدار الكبيرة is "the big house," not "the house is big." - Leaving the article off after هاد: هاد كتاب is "this is a book," هاد الكتاب is "this book." - Putting ال on a noun that has a pronoun ending: أبوي, not \*الأبوي. - Looking for a word for "a." There is none: دار is "a house."
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Palestinians and Jordanians rarely give their speech a name of its own. They call it عربي, "Arabic," or العامية (il-ʿāmmiyye), "the colloquial," or say "we speak فلسطيني" or "أردني." Linguists call the whole southern group South Levantine Arabic, and set it beside the North Levantine of Syria and Lebanon; the two understand each other without effort, and the Latinum Institute's Levantine Arabic course follows the speech of Damascus and Beirut.
Many of the commonest everyday formulas contain the article. Morning greetings are صباح الخير (ṣabāḥ il-khēr), "morning of the good," answered صباح النور (ṣabāḥ in-nūr), "morning of the light." Parting is مع السلامة (maʿ is-salāme), "with the safety." الحمد لله (il-ḥamdilla), "praise be to God," answers "how are you?" A taxi driver thanked for the ride, or anyone who has served you, may hear الله يسلم إيديك (ʔaḷḷa ysallim ʔidēk), "God keep your hands safe." Several of these appear in the dialogue below.
South Levantine and Standard Arabic live side by side. Children speak the dialect at home and learn Standard Arabic at school; the news, the Friday sermon and official documents are in Standard Arabic; the family, the market, the shared taxi, comedy, much television and many songs are in the dialect. The article is one point where the two Arabics agree: both write ال and both assimilate it before the sun letters. They differ over ج, which Standard Arabic and the southern Levant keep as a moon letter.
The great divide inside the region is the letter ق. In Jerusalem, Jaffa, Nablus and the other old towns it is a glottal stop: القهوة is il-ʔahwe and القدس is il-ʔuds. In many Palestinian villages it is a k, il-kahwe, and the ك of those villages moves towards ch. Among Bedouin, in Gaza and the south, and across much of Jordan it is g: il-gahwa. In Amman both are heard, and many speakers move between them; men more often use g and women the glottal stop, a difference sociolinguists have long studied. This course uses the urban glottal stop, which most learners' materials teach, and every speaker will understand it.
On phones and social media, South Levantine is written in Arabic letters and also in Latin letters, with numerals for sounds that English spelling lacks (2 for ء and the urban ق, 3 for ع, 7 for ح): il 2ahwe, 3al madrase. Neither writing is standardised; learning the Arabic script lets you read signs, menus, song lyrics and the proverbs of Section F.
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أمثال فلسطينية (Palestinian Proverbs) — four traditional sayings
South Levantine Arabic has little written literature of its own: Palestinian and Jordanian poets and novelists have written in Standard Arabic, and the colloquial lives in song, story and the spoken word. Its best-known texts are its proverbs, which every speaker knows. The four below are taken, in the wording given there, from the collection of Palestinian proverbs on the Arabic Wikiquote (ويكي الاقتباس, أمثال فلسطينية). Most are current in Jordan and across the Levant as well, sometimes in slightly different forms.
القرد في عين أمه غزال الجار للجار ولو جار الإسكافي حافي والحايك عريان الصبر عقل
F-A: Interlinear
F.1a القرد the-monkey في in عين eye أمه his-mother غزال gazelle
F.1b il-ʔird (il-IRD) the-monkey.M fi (fee) in ʿēn (ʿAYN) eye.F ʔimmo (IM-mo) mother-his ghazāl (gha-ZAAL) gazelle
F.2a الجار the-neighbour للجار for-the-neighbour ولو and-even-if جار wronged
F.2b il-jār (il-JAAR) the-neighbour.M lal-jār (lal-JAAR) to-the-neighbour.M w-law (w-LAW) and-even-if jār (jaar) wrong-PAST.3M.SG
F.3a الإسكافي the-shoemaker حافي barefoot والحايك and-the-weaver عريان naked
F.3b il-ʔiskāfi (il-is-KAA-fi) the-shoemaker.M ḥāfi (HAA-fi) barefoot-M.SG w-il-ḥāyek (wil-HAA-yek) and-the-weaver.M ʿaryān (ʿar-YAAN) naked-M.SG
F.4a الصبر the-patience عقل good-sense
F.4b iṣ-ṣabr (is-SABR) the-patience ʿaʔl (ʿA'L) good-sense
F-B: Original and Translation
القرد في عين أمه غزال / الجار للجار ولو جار / الإسكافي حافي والحايك عريان / الصبر عقل
"In his mother's eyes the monkey is a gazelle. / A neighbour stands by his neighbour, even if he has wronged him. / The shoemaker goes barefoot and the weaver goes naked. / Patience is good sense." (Translation: Latinum Institute.) The first is said, with a smile, of anyone's pride in their own children; the second, that the bond between neighbours outlasts a quarrel; the third, that those who make a thing for others are the last to have it themselves; the fourth, that waiting is often the wise course.
F-C: Original
القرد في عين أمه غزال الجار للجار ولو جار الإسكافي حافي والحايك عريان الصبر عقل
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Six articles stand in these four proverbs, and each shows one of the lesson's rules. القرد (il-ʔird) begins with ق, a moon letter, so the l is heard, and in the urban speech of Jerusalem the ق itself is the glottal stop; a villager says il-kird, a Jordanian il-gird. الجار (il-jār) shows ج as a moon letter, as the southern Levant treats it. للجار (lal-jār) shows ل, "to, for," joined to the article, with the alif of ال dropped and two lams side by side. والحايك (w-il-ḥāyek) shows و, "and," joined to the article. And الصبر (iṣ-ṣabr) begins with the sun letter ص: the l disappears and the ṣ is doubled.
The first proverb is a sentence without a verb, of the pattern of 1.1–1.4: القرد ... غزال, "the monkey ... a gazelle." The article makes القرد a type, as in the general statements of 1.12: not one monkey, but any monkey. غزال has no article, because it is what the monkey is, not a thing already known. عين أمه, "his mother's eye," is definite without ال, because the pronoun ending -o, "his," makes it so, as أبوي does in 1.14.
The second turns on a pun. جار is a noun, "neighbour," and also a verb, "he acted unjustly." With the article it is the noun, twice: الجار للجار, "the neighbour is for the neighbour." Without the article, at the end, it is the verb: ولو جار, "even if he did wrong." The article is what tells the two apart.
The third is two more sentences without a verb, joined by و: a definite noun and an adjective without the article, exactly as in السيارة جديدة. The fourth is the shortest possible sentence of this kind: the article on الصبر is generic, "patience" as such, as القهوة is "coffee" in 1.12.
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Lina, a student, takes a taxi in Amman to البلد (il-balad), the old downtown, and talks with the driver, Abu Khaled. The driver uses feminine forms for her: تفضلي, إنتي, إيديكي. Every line uses the article.
1.16a لينا Lina مرحبا hello عالبلد to-the-town لو if سمحت you-permitted
1.16b līna (LEE-na) Lina marḥaba (MAR-ha-ba) hello ʿal-balad (ʿal-BA-lad) to-the-town.F law (law) if samaḥt (sa-MAHT) permit-PAST.2M.SG
1.17a أبو father-of خالد Khaled أهلين welcome تفضلي please الباب the-door مفتوح open
1.17b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled ʔahlēn (ah-LAYN) welcome tfaḍḍali (t-FAD-da-li) please-IMP.2F.SG il-bāb (il-BAAB) the-door.M maftūḥ (maf-TOOH) open-M.SG
1.18a لينا Lina الطريق the-road زحمة crowded اليوم today
1.18b līna (LEE-na) Lina iṭ-ṭarīʔ (it-ta-REE') the-road.M zaḥme (ZAH-meh) crowded l-yōm (l-YOHM) the-day
1.19a أبو father-of خالد Khaled الطريق the-road عادي normal بس but الدوار the-roundabout السابع the-seventh زحمة crowded
1.19b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled iṭ-ṭarīʔ (it-ta-REE') the-road.M ʿādi (ʿAA-di) normal-M.SG bas (bas) but id-dawwār (id-daw-WAAR) the-roundabout.M is-sābiʿ (is-SAA-biʿ) the-seventh-M zaḥme (ZAH-meh) crowded
1.20a لينا Lina بدي I-want أنزل I-get-down عند at المدرج the-amphitheatre الروماني the-Roman
1.20b līna (LEE-na) Lina baddi (BAD-di) want-1SG ʔanzal (AN-zal) get-down-PRES.1SG ʿind (ʿind) at il-midraj (il-MID-raj) the-amphitheatre.M ir-rōmāni (ir-roh-MAA-ni) the-Roman-M.SG
1.21a أبو father-of خالد Khaled إنتي you طالبة student بالجامعة at-the-university
1.21b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled ʔinti (IN-ti) you.F.SG ṭālbe (TAAL-beh) student-F bil-jāmʿa (bil-JAAM-ʿa) at-the-university.F
1.22a لينا Lina آه yes بدرس I-study الهندسة the-engineering بالجامعة at-the-university الأردنية the-Jordanian
1.22b līna (LEE-na) Lina ʔā (aa) yes badrus (BAD-rus) study-PRES.1SG il-handase (il-HAN-da-seh) the-engineering.F bil-jāmʿa (bil-JAAM-ʿa) at-the-university.F l-ʔurdunniyye (l-ur-dun-NIY-yeh) the-Jordanian-F.SG
1.23a أبو father-of خالد Khaled الهندسة the-engineering صعبة hard
1.23b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled il-handase (il-HAN-da-seh) the-engineering.F ṣaʿbe (SAʿ-beh) hard-F.SG
1.24a لينا Lina شوي a-little بس but الدكاترة the-professors مناح good
1.24b līna (LEE-na) Lina šwayy (shwayy) a-little bas (bas) but id-dakātra (id-da-KAA-tra) the-professors.PL mnāḥ (mnaah) good-PL
1.25a أبو father-of خالد Khaled هاي this هي she البلد the-town
1.25b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled hāy (haay) this.F hiyye (HIY-yeh) she l-balad (l-BA-lad) the-town.F
1.26a لينا Lina وقف stop عند at الإشارة the-signal لو if سمحت you-permitted
1.26b līna (LEE-na) Lina wʔaf (w'af) stop-IMP.2M.SG ʿind (ʿind) at il-ʔišāra (il-i-SHAA-ra) the-signal.F law (law) if samaḥt (sa-MAHT) permit-PAST.2M.SG
1.27a لينا Lina قديش how-much الأجرة the-fare
1.27b līna (LEE-na) Lina ʔaddēš (ad-DAYSH) how-much il-ʔujra (il-UJ-ra) the-fare.F
1.28a أبو father-of خالد Khaled العداد the-meter بيقول says دينار dinar ونص and-half
1.28b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled il-ʿaddād (il-ʿad-DAAD) the-meter.M biʔūl (bi-OOL) say-PRES.3M.SG dīnār (dee-NAAR) dinar w-nuṣṣ (w-NUSS) and-half
1.29a لينا Lina تفضل here-you-are والباقي and-the-rest إلك for-you
1.29b līna (LEE-na) Lina tfaḍḍal (t-FAD-dal) here-you-are-IMP.2M.SG w-il-bāʔi (wil-BAA-'i) and-the-rest.M ʔilak (I-lak) to-you.M.SG
1.30a أبو father-of خالد Khaled الله God يسلم keep-safe إيديكي your-hands مع with السلامة the-safety
1.30b ʔabu (A-bu) father-of khāled (KHAA-led) Khaled ʔaḷḷa (AL-la) God ysallim (y-SAL-lim) keep-safe-PRES.3M.SG ʔidēki (i-DAY-ki) hands-your.F maʿ (maʿ) with is-salāme (is-sa-LAA-meh) the-safety.F
1.16 لينا: مرحبا، عالبلد لو سمحت. (līna: marḥaba, ʿal-balad law samaḥt) "Lina: Hello, downtown, please." 1.17 أبو خالد: أهلين، تفضلي، الباب مفتوح. (ʔabu khāled: ʔahlēn, tfaḍḍali, il-bāb maftūḥ) "Abu Khaled: Hello, get in, the door's open." 1.18 لينا: الطريق زحمة اليوم؟ (līna: iṭ-ṭarīʔ zaḥme l-yōm?) "Lina: Is there much traffic today?" 1.19 أبو خالد: الطريق عادي، بس الدوار السابع زحمة. (ʔabu khāled: iṭ-ṭarīʔ ʿādi, bas id-dawwār is-sābiʿ zaḥme) "Abu Khaled: The road's normal, but Seventh Circle is jammed." 1.20 لينا: بدي أنزل عند المدرج الروماني. (līna: baddi ʔanzal ʿind il-midraj ir-rōmāni) "Lina: I want to get out at the Roman Theatre." 1.21 أبو خالد: إنتي طالبة بالجامعة؟ (ʔabu khāled: ʔinti ṭālbe bil-jāmʿa?) "Abu Khaled: Are you a student at the university?" 1.22 لينا: آه، بدرس الهندسة بالجامعة الأردنية. (līna: ʔā, badrus il-handase bil-jāmʿa l-ʔurdunniyye) "Lina: Yes, I study engineering at the University of Jordan." 1.23 أبو خالد: الهندسة صعبة؟ (ʔabu khāled: il-handase ṣaʿbe?) "Abu Khaled: Is engineering hard?" 1.24 لينا: شوي، بس الدكاترة مناح. (līna: šwayy, bas id-dakātra mnāḥ) "Lina: A bit, but the professors are good." 1.25 أبو خالد: هاي هي البلد. (ʔabu khāled: hāy hiyye l-balad) "Abu Khaled: Here's downtown." 1.26 لينا: وقف عند الإشارة لو سمحت. (līna: wʔaf ʿind il-ʔišāra law samaḥt) "Lina: Stop at the traffic light, please." 1.27 لينا: قديش الأجرة؟ (līna: ʔaddēš il-ʔujra?) "Lina: How much is the fare?" 1.28 أبو خالد: العداد بيقول دينار ونص. (ʔabu khāled: il-ʿaddād biʔūl dīnār w-nuṣṣ) "Abu Khaled: The meter says a dinar and a half." 1.29 لينا: تفضل، والباقي إلك. (līna: tfaḍḍal, w-il-bāʔi ʔilak) "Lina: Here you are, keep the change." 1.30 أبو خالد: الله يسلم إيديكي، مع السلامة. (ʔabu khāled: ʔaḷḷa ysallim ʔidēki, maʿ is-salāme) "Abu Khaled: Thank you kindly. Goodbye."
1.16 لينا: مرحبا، عالبلد لو سمحت. 1.17 أبو خالد: أهلين، تفضلي، الباب مفتوح. 1.18 لينا: الطريق زحمة اليوم؟ 1.19 أبو خالد: الطريق عادي، بس الدوار السابع زحمة. 1.20 لينا: بدي أنزل عند المدرج الروماني. 1.21 أبو خالد: إنتي طالبة بالجامعة؟ 1.22 لينا: آه، بدرس الهندسة بالجامعة الأردنية. 1.23 أبو خالد: الهندسة صعبة؟ 1.24 لينا: شوي، بس الدكاترة مناح. 1.25 أبو خالد: هاي هي البلد. 1.26 لينا: وقف عند الإشارة لو سمحت. 1.27 لينا: قديش الأجرة؟ 1.28 أبو خالد: العداد بيقول دينار ونص. 1.29 لينا: تفضل، والباقي إلك. 1.30 أبو خالد: الله يسلم إيديكي، مع السلامة.
Places in Amman (1.16, 1.19, 1.20, 1.25). البلد (il-balad), "the town," is what Ammanis call their old downtown, and عالبلد (ʿal-balad), "to the town," is all a taxi driver needs to hear. Amman's main road is laid out along numbered roundabouts, الدوار الأول (id-dawwār il-ʔawwal), "the First Circle," to الدوار الثامن, "the Eighth"; the noun and its ordinal number both take the article: الدوار السابع (id-dawwār is-sābiʿ), "the Seventh Circle," with two sun letters. المدرج الروماني (il-midraj ir-rōmāni), "the Roman amphitheatre," is the great Roman theatre in the downtown, and again noun and adjective both carry the article.
Sentence or phrase (1.17–1.19, 1.23, 1.24). الباب مفتوح, "the door is open," الطريق عادي, "the road is normal," الهندسة صعبة, "engineering is hard," and الدكاترة مناح, "the professors are good," are all sentences: a definite noun and an adjective without the article. الدوار السابع and الجامعة الأردنية are phrases: both words have it. زحمة (zaḥme), "crowding, traffic," is a noun used like an adjective, so it does not change for gender: الطريق زحمة, الدوار زحمة.
Generic use (1.22, 1.23). "I study engineering": بدرس الهندسة, with the article, as every field of study takes it: الطب (iṭ-ṭibb), medicine; التاريخ (it-tārīkh), history.
اليوم and the vowel (1.18). اليوم, "today," is literally "the day." After a consonant it is il-yōm; in 1.18 the word before it, زحمة, ends in a vowel, so the i drops: zaḥme l-yōm.
هاي هي البلد (1.25). "This is downtown," literally "this, it, the town." The pronoun هي (hiyye), "she, it," stands between a demonstrative and a definite noun to make a sentence of identification. البلد is feminine, so the demonstrative is هاي and the pronoun هي. After the vowel of هي, the article is only l-.
Masculine and feminine "you" (1.16, 1.17, 1.21, 1.26, 1.29, 1.30). Lina speaks to a man: سمحت (samaḥt), وقف (wʔaf), تفضل (tfaḍḍal), إلك (ʔilak). Abu Khaled speaks to a woman: تفضلي (tfaḍḍali), إنتي (ʔinti), إيديكي (ʔidēki). The feminine ending -i, and -ki after a vowel, is the mark.
Money (1.27–1.29). الأجرة (il-ʔujra), "the fare." The Jordanian dinar, دينار (dīnār), is divided into 100 piastres, قرش (ʔirš). الباقي (il-bāʔi), "the rest, the change": والباقي إلك, "and the rest is yours."
Formulas (1.16, 1.30). لو سمحت (law samaḥt), "if you permitted," is "please," and to a woman لو سمحتي (law samaḥti). الله يسلم إيديك (ʔaḷḷa ysallim ʔidēk), "God keep your hands safe," thanks someone for work done with the hands: a meal, a ride, a favour. مع السلامة (maʿ is-salāme), "with the safety," is "goodbye," said by the one staying behind as well as the one leaving.
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ال (il-) — IPA: /il/ — The vowel is a short i, as in "bit." After a vowel it disappears: اشترى الدار /ˈʃtara dˈdaːr/. الدار (id-dār) — IPA: /idˈdaːr/ — The sun letter is held twice as long as a single d: "id-DAAR," not "il-DAAR." السيارة (is-sayyāra) — IPA: /issajˈjaːra/ — A long s at the start, a long y in the middle. الشاي (iš-šāy) — IPA: /iʃˈʃaːj/ — A long sh. الجو (il-jaww) — IPA: /ilˈd͡ʒaww/ — ج as the j of "jam," and the l is heard: in the south ج is a moon letter. القهوة (il-ʔahwe) — IPA: /ilˈʔahwe/ — The urban ق is a glottal stop, the catch in the throat in the middle of "uh-oh." In much of Jordan and among Bedouin it is a g: /ilˈɡahwa/; in many Palestinian villages a k: /ilˈkahwe/. الحايك (il-ḥāyek) — IPA: /ilˈħaːjek/ — ح is a strong, whispered h from the throat, as if breathing on glasses to clean them. الخير (il-khēr) — IPA: /ilˈxeːr/ — خ is the rough sound of Scottish "loch" or German "Bach." ē is a long, pure e, as in French été, with no glide into "ee." اليوم (il-yōm) — IPA: /ilˈjoːm/ — ō is a long, pure o, as in French eau. العداد (il-ʿaddād) — IPA: /ilʕadˈdaːd/ — ع is made by squeezing the throat; it is a consonant, not a vowel, and must not be dropped. الصبح (iṣ-ṣubḥ) — IPA: /isˤˈsˤubħ/ — ص is an "emphatic" s: the tongue is drawn back and the vowels around it darken. The same holds for ط ṭ (/tˤ/) and ض ḍ (/dˤ/): الطريق (iṭ-ṭarīʔ) /itˤtˤaˈriːʔ/. جديدة (jdīde) — IPA: /d͡ʒˈdiːde/ — The feminine ending is -e in Palestinian speech after most consonants; in Jordan often -a: /d͡ʒˈdiːda/. الله (ʔaḷḷa) — IPA: /ʔaɫˈɫa/ — Almost the only word in which l is "dark," pronounced with the back of the tongue raised, as in English "full." Vowel length: long vowels (aa, ee, oo, ay, oh in the respellings) are held about twice as long as short ones, and length can change meaning. Stress usually falls on a long vowel or on the syllable before the last.
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Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)