← Babylonian (Talmudic) Aramaic
What does "even" mean in Babylonian Aramaic?
The Aramaic of the Babylonian Talmud says "even" with אֲפִילּוּ (ʾăfillū). It is one of the commonest little words of the Gemara. It sets a word at the far end of a scale, where the listener does not expect it: אֲפִילּוּ טַלְיָא יָדַע, "even a boy knows". If even the boy knows, everyone else knows too.
The English learner should notice four things at once.
First, אֲפִילּוּ stands directly before the word it lifts. אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא, "even on the Sabbath"; אֲפִילּוּ חַד, "even one". Move אֲפִילּוּ and you change what is surprising. You have met it already in this course: בְּדִיל מִצְוָה מְבַטְּלִינַן אֲפִילּוּ מִקָּח גָּמוּר, "for a commandment we cancel even a complete sale" (lesson 17).
Second, with a negative, אֲפִילּוּ means "not even". לֵית לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד, "he does not have even one zuz". The negative stands with the verb, and אֲפִילּוּ marks the smallest thing that is still missing.
Third, אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי (ʾăfillū hākhī) is "even so, nevertheless". Word for word it is "even thus". It admits a difficulty and goes on regardless: וַאֲפִילּוּ הָכִי לָא סָלִיק בִּידִי אֶלָּא תְּלָת, "and even so only three remained in my hand" (lesson 16).
Fourth, the Gemara builds whole arguments on אֲפִילּוּ. לָא מִיבַּעְיָא X, אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ Y is "X goes without saying; but even Y" (lesson 21). אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא (ʾăfillū tēmā), "you may even say", tells the student that a teaching can be explained even by the opinion that seemed to oppose it.
The word is a compound of אַף (ʾaf), "also", and אִלּוּ (ʾillū), "if": "even if". The dictionaries of Jastrow and Klein both give this origin. The same word is used in the Hebrew of the Mishnah, and so in the Talmud it is found in Aramaic sentences and in Hebrew ones alike. Section F shows both, side by side. In the old printed editions it is often shortened to אפי׳.
"Even" in "an even number" has nothing to do with אֲפִילּוּ. Nor is אֲפִילּוּ simply "also": for plain addition the Gemara says נָמֵי (nāmē), "also, too". אֲפִילּוּ adds something, and it says that the addition is surprising.
In this lesson the romanisation follows a simple academic scheme: ʾ for א, ʿ for ע, ḥ for ח, ṭ for ט, ṣ for צ, q for ק, sh for שׁ, kh for soft כ, v for soft ב, f for soft פ; long vowels are marked with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū), and ə stands for the short vowel shewa.
- אֲפִילּוּ (ʾăfillū) = "even", set directly before the word it lifts - אֲפִילּוּ חַד (ʾăfillū ḥad) = "even one"; with a negative, "not even one" - לֵיכָּא אֲפִילּוּ חַד (lēkkā ʾăfillū ḥad) = "there is not even one" - אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי / וַאֲפִילּוּ הָכִי = "even so, nevertheless" - לָא מִיבַּעְיָא … אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ … = "not only … but even …" - אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא (ʾăfillū tēmā) = "you may even say" - From אַף, "also", + אִלּוּ, "if"; shared with Mishnaic Hebrew; abbreviated אפי׳ - Plain "also" is נָמֵי; "even" adds surprise
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The sentences of Sections A to C and of the Genre Section are written for this lesson; they are not quotations from the Talmud. The phrases of 63.1, 63.8 and 63.9 are formulas the Gemara uses constantly; the only full quotation is in Section F.
63.1a אֲפִילּוּ even הָכִי thus
63.1b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even hākhī (HAA-khee) thus
63.2a אֲפִילּוּ even חַד one
63.2b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ḥad (KHAD) one-M
63.3a לֵיכָּא there-is-not אֲפִילּוּ even חַד one
63.3b lēkkā (layk-KAA) there-is-not ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ḥad (KHAD) one-M
63.4a אֲפִילּוּ even בְּשַׁבְּתָא on-the-Sabbath גָּרֵיס he-studies
63.4b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-shabbətā (b'-shab-b'-TAA) on-Sabbath-F.SG.EMPH gārēs (gaa-RAYS) study-PTCP.M.SG
63.5a אֲפִילּוּ even טַלְיָא a-boy יָדַע knows
63.5b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ṭalyā (tal-YAA) boy-M.SG.EMPH yādaʿ (yaa-DA') know-PTCP.M.SG
63.6a לֵית there-is-not לֵיהּ to-him אֲפִילּוּ even זוּזָא a-zuz חַד one
63.6b lēt (LAYT) there-is-not lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even zūzā (zoo-ZAA) zuz-M.SG.EMPH ḥad (KHAD) one-M
63.7a רַבָּה Rabbah הֲוָה was גָּרֵיס studying אֲפִילּוּ even בְּלֵילְיָא at-night
63.7b Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG gārēs (gaa-RAYS) study-PTCP.M.SG ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-lēlyā (b'-layl-YAA) in-night-M.SG.EMPH
63.8a לָא not מִיבַּעְיָא it-is-needed בְּחוֹל on-a-weekday אֶלָּא but אֲפִילּוּ even בְּשַׁבְּתָא on-the-Sabbath
63.8b lā (laa) not mibbaʿyā (mib-BA'-yaa) be-needed-PTCP.M.SG bə-ḥōl (b'-KHOHL) on-weekday ʾellā (EL-laa) but ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-shabbətā (b'-shab-b'-TAA) on-Sabbath-F.SG.EMPH
63.9a אֲפִילּוּ even תֵּימָא you-may-say רַבָּנַן the-Rabbis לָא not פְּלִיגִי they-disagree
63.9b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even tēmā (TAY-maa) say-IMPF.2M.SG rabbānan (rab-BAA-nan) Rabbis-M.PL lā (laa) not pəlīgī (p'-lee-GEE) disagree-PTCP.M.PL
63.10a תַּלְמִידָא a-student דְּשָׁאֵיל who-asks אֲפִילּוּ even מִילְּתָא a-thing זוּטַרְתָּא small יָלֵיף learns
63.10b talmīdā (tal-mee-DAA) student-M.SG.EMPH də-shāʾēl (d'-shaa-AYL) who-ask-PTCP.M.SG ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even millətā (mil-l'-TAA) matter-F.SG.EMPH zūṭartā (zoo-TAR-taa) small-F.SG.EMPH yālēf (yaa-LAYF) learn-PTCP.M.SG
63.11a אֲמַר said לֵיהּ to-him רַבֵּיהּ his-master אֲפִילּוּ even הָכִי thus לָא not תִּשְׁבּוֹק you-shall-leave גִּירְסָא study
63.11b ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him rabbēh (rab-BAYH) master-his ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even hākhī (HAA-khee) thus lā (laa) not tishbōq (tish-BOHQ) leave-IMPF.2M.SG gīrsā (geer-SAA) study-F.SG.EMPH
63.12a אֲפִילּוּ even מַלְכָּא the-king לָא not יָדַע knows הָא this מִילְּתָא matter
63.12b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even malkā (mal-KAA) king-M.SG.EMPH lā (laa) not yādaʿ (yaa-DA') know-PTCP.M.SG hā (HAA) this-F millətā (mil-l'-TAA) matter-F.SG.EMPH
63.13a לָא not הֲוָה there-was לֵיהּ to-him אֶלָּא except פַּלְגָא half דְּנַהֲמָא of-bread וַאֲפִילּוּ and-even הָכִי thus יְהַב he-gave מִינֵּיהּ from-it לְחַבְרֵיהּ to-his-friend
63.13b lā (laa) not hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾellā (EL-laa) except palgā (pal-GAA) half-M.SG.EMPH də-nahămā (d'-na-ha-MAA) of-bread-M.SG.EMPH wa-ʾăfillū (va-a-fil-LOO) and-even hākhī (HAA-khee) thus yəhav (y'-HAV) give-PERF.3M.SG minnēh (min-NAYH) from-it-M lə-ḥavrēh (l'-khav-RAYH) to-friend-his
63.14a אֲפִילּוּ even בְּיוֹמָא on-a-day דְּמִטְרָא of-rain רַבָּה Rabbah הֲוָה was אָזֵיל going לְבֵי to-the-house-of מִדְרְשָׁא study
63.14b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-yōmā (b'-YOH-maa) on-day-M.SG.EMPH də-miṭrā (d'-mit-RAA) of-rain-M.SG.EMPH Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG ʾāzēl (aa-ZAYL) go-PTCP.M.SG lə-vē (l'-VAY) to-house-CONST midrəshā (mid-r'-SHAA) study-M.SG.EMPH
63.15a אִי if אֲפִילּוּ even רַבָּה Rabbah לָא not יָדַע knows אֲנַן we מְנָא from-where יָדְעִינַן do-we-know
63.15b ʾī (EE) if ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah lā (laa) not yādaʿ (yaa-DA') know-PTCP.M.SG ʾănan (a-NAN) we mənā (m'-NAA) from-where yādʿīnan (yaad-'EE-nan) know-PTCP.1PL
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63.1 אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי. — ʾăfillū hākhī. — "Even so."
63.2 אֲפִילּוּ חַד. — ʾăfillū ḥad. — "Even one."
63.3 לֵיכָּא אֲפִילּוּ חַד. — lēkkā ʾăfillū ḥad. — "There is not even one."
63.4 אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא גָּרֵיס. — ʾăfillū bə-shabbətā gārēs. — "Even on the Sabbath he studies."
63.5 אֲפִילּוּ טַלְיָא יָדַע. — ʾăfillū ṭalyā yādaʿ. — "Even a boy knows."
63.6 לֵית לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד. — lēt lēh ʾăfillū zūzā ḥad. — "He does not have even one zuz."
63.7 רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס אֲפִילּוּ בְּלֵילְיָא. — Rabbā hăwā gārēs ʾăfillū bə-lēlyā. — "Rabbah used to study even at night."
63.8 לָא מִיבַּעְיָא בְּחוֹל, אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא. — lā mibbaʿyā bə-ḥōl, ʾellā ʾăfillū bə-shabbətā. — "Not only on a weekday, but even on the Sabbath."
63.9 אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא רַבָּנַן, לָא פְּלִיגִי. — ʾăfillū tēmā rabbānan, lā pəlīgī. — "You may even say it follows the Rabbis: they do not disagree."
63.10 תַּלְמִידָא דְּשָׁאֵיל אֲפִילּוּ מִילְּתָא זוּטַרְתָּא, יָלֵיף. — talmīdā də-shāʾēl ʾăfillū millətā zūṭartā, yālēf. — "A student who asks even about a small thing learns."
63.11 אֲמַר לֵיהּ רַבֵּיהּ: אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי, לָא תִּשְׁבּוֹק גִּירְסָא. — ʾămar lēh rabbēh: ʾăfillū hākhī, lā tishbōq gīrsā. — "His master said to him: Even so, do not give up your study."
63.12 אֲפִילּוּ מַלְכָּא לָא יָדַע הָא מִילְּתָא. — ʾăfillū malkā lā yādaʿ hā millətā. — "Even the king does not know this thing."
63.13 לָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ אֶלָּא פַּלְגָא דְּנַהֲמָא, וַאֲפִילּוּ הָכִי יְהַב מִינֵּיהּ לְחַבְרֵיהּ. — lā hăwā lēh ʾellā palgā də-nahămā, wa-ʾăfillū hākhī yəhav minnēh lə-ḥavrēh. — "He had only half a loaf, and even so he gave some of it to his friend."
63.14 אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּמִטְרָא, רַבָּה הֲוָה אָזֵיל לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא. — ʾăfillū bə-yōmā də-miṭrā, Rabbā hăwā ʾāzēl lə-vē midrəshā. — "Even on a rainy day Rabbah would go to the study house."
63.15 אִי אֲפִילּוּ רַבָּה לָא יָדַע, אֲנַן מְנָא יָדְעִינַן? — ʾī ʾăfillū Rabbā lā yādaʿ, ʾănan mənā yādʿīnan? — "If even Rabbah does not know, how should we know?"
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63.1 אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי.
63.2 אֲפִילּוּ חַד.
63.3 לֵיכָּא אֲפִילּוּ חַד.
63.4 אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא גָּרֵיס.
63.5 אֲפִילּוּ טַלְיָא יָדַע.
63.6 לֵית לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד.
63.7 רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס אֲפִילּוּ בְּלֵילְיָא.
63.8 לָא מִיבַּעְיָא בְּחוֹל, אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא.
63.9 אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא רַבָּנַן, לָא פְּלִיגִי.
63.10 תַּלְמִידָא דְּשָׁאֵיל אֲפִילּוּ מִילְּתָא זוּטַרְתָּא, יָלֵיף.
63.11 אֲמַר לֵיהּ רַבֵּיהּ: אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי, לָא תִּשְׁבּוֹק גִּירְסָא.
63.12 אֲפִילּוּ מַלְכָּא לָא יָדַע הָא מִילְּתָא.
63.13 לָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ אֶלָּא פַּלְגָא דְּנַהֲמָא, וַאֲפִילּוּ הָכִי יְהַב מִינֵּיהּ לְחַבְרֵיהּ.
63.14 אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּמִטְרָא, רַבָּה הֲוָה אָזֵיל לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא.
63.15 אִי אֲפִילּוּ רַבָּה לָא יָדַע, אֲנַן מְנָא יָדְעִינַן?
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1. אֲפִילּוּ never changes. It is a particle: it has no gender, number or person, and it takes no endings. It can stand before a noun (אֲפִילּוּ טַלְיָא, 63.5), a numeral (אֲפִילּוּ חַד, 63.2), a phrase with a preposition (אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא, 63.4; אֲפִילּוּ בְּלֵילְיָא, 63.7), a demonstrative (אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי, 63.1) or a verb (אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא, 63.9).
2. It stands directly before the word it lifts. Compare:
- אֲפִילּוּ רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס בְּלֵילְיָא (ʾăfillū Rabbā hăwā gārēs bə-lēlyā) = "even Rabbah used to study at night" (Rabbah is the surprise) - רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס אֲפִילּוּ בְּלֵילְיָא (Rabbā hăwā gārēs ʾăfillū bə-lēlyā) = "Rabbah used to study even at night" (the night is the surprise, 63.7)
English can put "even" in odd places; Aramaic keeps אֲפִילּוּ beside its word.
3. The scale. אֲפִילּוּ marks the end of a scale. In a positive sentence it is the least likely case, and everything less surprising is included: אֲפִילּוּ טַלְיָא יָדַע, "even a boy knows", so the men know too (63.5). In a negative sentence it is the smallest amount, and nothing at all remains: לֵית לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד, "he has not even one zuz" (63.6).
4. The negatives with אֲפִילּוּ. The negative goes with the verb or with the word for "there is":
- לָא (lā) with a participle: אֲפִילּוּ מַלְכָּא לָא יָדַע, "even the king does not know" (63.12) - לֵיכָּא (lēkkā), "there is not", the negative of אִיכָּא: לֵיכָּא אֲפִילּוּ חַד (63.3) - לֵית (lēt), "there is not", with לְ- for possession: לֵית לֵיהּ, "he has not", word for word "there is not to him" (63.6). In the past: לָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ, "he had not" (63.13).
5. אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי, "even so". With הָכִי (hākhī), "thus", it means "nevertheless". It usually follows a clause that states a difficulty, often joined with וַ- (wa-), "and": לָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ אֶלָּא פַּלְגָא דְּנַהֲמָא, וַאֲפִילּוּ הָכִי יְהַב מִינֵּיהּ, "he had only half a loaf, and even so he gave some of it" (63.13). Before the hataf patah of אֲ the conjunction is pronounced וַ- (va-), not וְ-.
6. לָא מִיבַּעְיָא … אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ … Word for word, "it is not needed [to say] … but even …". The Gemara uses it to explain why a teaching names the harder case: the easy case goes without saying. לָא מִיבַּעְיָא בְּחוֹל, אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ בְּשַׁבְּתָא, "not only on a weekday, but even on the Sabbath" (63.8). אֶלָּא (ʾellā) here is "but rather".
7. אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא, "you may even say". תֵּימָא (tēmā) is "you say", the imperfect of אֲמַר. The phrase opens an answer: the teaching fits even the opinion that seemed to oppose it. אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא רַבָּנַן, "you may even say it follows the Rabbis" (63.9).
8. "If even …". After אִי (ʾī), "if", אֲפִילּוּ builds an argument from the greater to the lesser: אִי אֲפִילּוּ רַבָּה לָא יָדַע, אֲנַן מְנָא יָדְעִינַן? "If even Rabbah does not know, how should we know?" (63.15). מְנָא (mənā), "from where?", also asks "how?".
9. אֲפִילּוּ in Hebrew. The Hebrew of the Mishnah and the baraitot uses the same word, spelled the same way. In a Hebrew sentence it can introduce a whole situation, "even if": in Section F, אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ, "even [if] a sharp sword is lying on his neck".
- Putting אֲפִילּוּ in the wrong place. ✗ אֲפִילּוּ רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס בְּלֵילְיָא for "Rabbah studied even at night" → ✓ רַבָּה הֲוָה גָּרֵיס אֲפִילּוּ בְּלֵילְיָא. The particle goes before the surprising word. - Using אֲפִילּוּ for plain "also". "He also came" is אִיהוּ נָמֵי אֲתָא, not אֲפִילּוּ. Use אֲפִילּוּ only where there is surprise. - Forgetting the negative in "not even". אֲפִילּוּ alone does not mean "not even". ✗ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד אִית לֵיהּ for "he has not even one zuz" → ✓ לֵית לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא חַד. - Reading אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי as "even thus" in the sense of "in exactly this way". It means "nevertheless". - Reading "even" in "even number" as אֲפִילּוּ. The English word has two meanings; אֲפִילּוּ has only the one. - Not recognising the abbreviation. In printed editions אפי׳ and אפילו are the same word as אֲפִילּוּ.
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The Talmud often reasons from the lighter case to the heavier. Its Hebrew name is קַל וָחוֹמֶר (qal wa-ḥomer): if a rule holds in the light case, it holds all the more in the heavy one. אֲפִילּוּ is the everyday word of this habit of mind. Whenever the Gemara says "even", it is pointing to the end of a scale and asking the student to fill in everything between.
A Mishnah or a baraita sometimes states a rule for an unexpected case and passes over the obvious one. The Gemara explains with לָא מִיבַּעְיָא … אֶלָּא אֲפִילּוּ …: the obvious case did not need saying; the teaching speaks of the hard one, and the easy one follows. Students learn to read every אֲפִילּוּ as a small argument.
When two opinions disagree and a teaching seems to follow only one of them, the Gemara may answer אֲפִילּוּ תֵּימָא: the teaching fits even the other side. Then it explains how. The phrase keeps both opinions alive and shows that the conflict was smaller than it looked.
אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי, "even so", carries the Gemara's stubbornness. A sage learns the same teaching many times, and even so remembers only part (lesson 16). In Section F a king hears that he will die, and even so he refuses to stop praying.
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The Babylonian Talmud, Berakhot 10a, text as in the William Davidson (Vilna-based, vocalised) edition on Sefaria. King Hezekiah is sick, and the prophet Isaiah comes to tell him, "you shall die and not live" (2 Kings 20:1). In the Gemara's telling the prophet adds that the decree is already sealed. Hezekiah answers him with a tradition of his ancestors' house, and the Gemara then cites two Amoraim who teach the same thing. In the Bible Hezekiah prays and is granted fifteen more years (2 Kings 20:6). The passage is chosen because it turns on אֲפִילּוּ, "even", at the far end of every scale: a sword already on the neck. It also shows the same word in a Hebrew teaching and in an Aramaic frame. The edition prints a stray dot in the qof of מְקוּבְּלַנִי; it is left out here.
F.1a אֲמַר he-said לֵיהּ to-him בֶּן son-of אָמוֹץ Amoz כַּלֵּה finish נְבוּאָתְךָ your-prophecy וָצֵא and-go-out
F.1b ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ben (BEN) son-CONST ʾĀmōṣ (aa-MOHTS) Amoz kallē (kal-LAY) finish-IMP.M.SG nəvūʾātəkhā (n'-voo-aa-t'-KHAA) prophecy-your-M.SG wā-ṣē (vaa-TSAY) and-go-out-IMP.M.SG
F.2a כָּךְ thus מְקוּבְּלַנִי I-have-received מִבֵּית from-the-house-of אֲבִי the-father-of אַבָּא my-father אֲפִילּוּ even חֶרֶב a-sword חַדָּה sharp מוּנַּחַת lying עַל on צַוָּארוֹ his-neck שֶׁל of אָדָם a-person אַל not יִמְנַע let-him-withhold עַצְמוֹ himself מִן from הָרַחֲמִים the-mercy
F.2b kākh (KAAKH) thus məqubbəlanī (m'-qoo-b'-LA-nee) receive-PASS.PTCP.1SG mi-bbēt (mib-BAYT) from-house-CONST ʾăvī (a-VEE) father-CONST ʾabbā (AB-baa) father ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ḥerev (KHE-rev) sword-F.SG ḥaddā (khad-DAA) sharp-F.SG munnaḥat (moon-NA-khat) be-placed-PASS.PTCP.F.SG ʿal (AL) on ṣawwārō (tsav-vaa-ROH) neck-his shel (SHEL) of ʾādām (aa-DAAM) person-M.SG ʾal (AL) not yimnaʿ (yim-NA') withhold-IMPF.3M.SG ʿaṣmō (ats-MOH) self-his min (MIN) from hā-raḥămīm (haa-ra-kha-MEEM) the-mercy-M.PL
F.3a אִתְּמַר it-was-said נָמֵי also רַבִּי Rabbi יוֹחָנָן Yoḥanan וְרַבִּי and-Rabbi אֱלִיעֶזֶר Eliezer דְאָמְרִי who-say תַּרְוַיְיהוּ both-of-them אֲפִילּוּ even חֶרֶב a-sword חַדָּה sharp מוּנַּחַת lying עַל on צַוָּארוֹ his-neck שֶׁל of אָדָם a-person אַל not יִמְנַע let-him-withhold עַצְמוֹ himself מִן from הָרַחֲמִים the-mercy
F.3b ʾittəmar (it-t'-MAR) be-said-PERF.3M.SG nāmē (naa-MAY) also Rabbī (rab-BEE) Rabbi Yōḥānān (yoh-khaa-NAAN) Yoḥanan wə-Rabbī (v'-rab-BEE) and-Rabbi ʾĔlīʿezer (e-lee-'E-zer) Eliezer də-ʾāmrī (d'-AAM-ree) who-say-PTCP.M.PL tarwayhū (tar-VAI-hoo) two-of-them ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ḥerev (KHE-rev) sword-F.SG ḥaddā (khad-DAA) sharp-F.SG munnaḥat (moon-NA-khat) be-placed-PASS.PTCP.F.SG ʿal (AL) on ṣawwārō (tsav-vaa-ROH) neck-his shel (SHEL) of ʾādām (aa-DAAM) person-M.SG ʾal (AL) not yimnaʿ (yim-NA') withhold-IMPF.3M.SG ʿaṣmō (ats-MOH) self-his min (MIN) from hā-raḥămīm (haa-ra-kha-MEEM) the-mercy-M.PL
F.4a שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר as-it-is-said הֵן behold יִקְטְלֵנִי he-may-slay-me לוֹ for-him אֲיַחֵל I-will-hope
F.4b she-nneʾĕmar (she-ne-e-MAR) that-be-said-PERF.3M.SG hēn (HAYN) behold yiqṭəlēnī (yiq-t'-LAY-nee) slay-IMPF.3M.SG-me lō (LOH) for-him ʾăyaḥēl (a-ya-KHAYL) hope-IMPF.1SG
אֲמַר לֵיהּ: בֶּן אָמוֹץ, כַּלֵּה נְבוּאָתְךָ וָצֵא! כָּךְ מְקוּבְּלַנִי מִבֵּית אֲבִי אַבָּא, אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם, אַל יִמְנַע עַצְמוֹ מִן הָרַחֲמִים. אִתְּמַר נָמֵי, רַבִּי יוֹחָנָן וְרַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר דְאָמְרִי תַּרְוַיְיהוּ: אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם, אַל יִמְנַע עַצְמוֹ מִן הָרַחֲמִים. שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״הֵן יִקְטְלֵנִי לוֹ אֲיַחֵל״.
He said to him: Son of Amoz, finish your prophecy and go! This is the tradition I have received from the house of my father's father: even if a sharp sword is resting on a person's neck, he should not hold himself back from prayer for mercy. It was also said that Rabbi Yoḥanan and Rabbi Eliezer both say: even if a sharp sword is resting on a person's neck, he should not hold himself back from prayer for mercy, as it is said: "Though he slay me, yet will I hope in him" (Job 13:15).
אֲמַר לֵיהּ: בֶּן אָמוֹץ, כַּלֵּה נְבוּאָתְךָ וָצֵא! כָּךְ מְקוּבְּלַנִי מִבֵּית אֲבִי אַבָּא, אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם, אַל יִמְנַע עַצְמוֹ מִן הָרַחֲמִים. אִתְּמַר נָמֵי, רַבִּי יוֹחָנָן וְרַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר דְאָמְרִי תַּרְוַיְיהוּ: אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ שֶׁל אָדָם, אַל יִמְנַע עַצְמוֹ מִן הָרַחֲמִים. שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: ״הֵן יִקְטְלֵנִי לוֹ אֲיַחֵל״.
- Two languages in one passage. The Gemara's own words are Aramaic: אֲמַר לֵיהּ, "he said to him", and אִתְּמַר נָמֵי … דְאָמְרִי תַּרְוַיְיהוּ, "it was also said … who both say". The king's words and the teaching are in Hebrew, as the Gemara often keeps an older tradition in the language it came in. אֲפִילּוּ is at home in both. - אֲפִילּוּ before a whole picture. In Hebrew אֲפִילּוּ can stand before a clause without a verb of being: אֲפִילּוּ חֶרֶב חַדָּה מוּנַּחַת עַל צַוָּארוֹ, "even [if] a sharp sword is lying on his neck". This is the old sense of the word, אַף אִלּוּ, "even if". - The end of the scale. Nothing is more hopeless than a sword already on the neck. If a person may pray even then, he may pray in every lesser trouble. This is the scale of Section D, rule 3. - בֶּן אָמוֹץ. Hezekiah calls the prophet by his father's name, "son of Amoz", as Isaiah is named in Isaiah 1:1. In Aramaic "son" is בַּר; here the king speaks Hebrew, בֶּן. - אֲבִי אַבָּא. "The father of my father". אַבָּא, "father", is used in the Hebrew of the rabbis as "my father". The tradition comes from King David, Hezekiah's ancestor, as the Gemara explains. - אִתְּמַר נָמֵי. "It was also said": the Gemara's formula for bringing a second, independent statement of the same teaching. אִתְּמַר is the passive of אֲמַר. נָמֵי is the plain "also", not אֲפִילּוּ: the second statement adds, but does not surprise. - תַּרְוַיְיהוּ, "both of them". From תְּרֵי, "two" (lesson 58), with the ending -hū, "of them". דְאָמְרִי is the plural participle, "who say". The vocalised edition writes דְ- here without the dot that this course usually writes in דְּ-; the word is the same. - The second rabbi. The vocalised edition reads רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר; the Vilna-based text on Hebrew Wikisource reads ר׳ אלעזר (Rabbi Elazar). Printed editions and manuscripts differ on this name. - הֵן יִקְטְלֵנִי לוֹ אֲיַחֵל. Job 13:15. The written text of Job has לֹא, "not"; the reading tradition has לוֹ, "for him", and the Gemara reads לוֹ: "though he slay me, I will hope in him". Even facing death, Job hopes, and so does the king.
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A short story in the language of the Gemara, written for this lesson. It is not a quotation from the Talmud.
63.16a הֲוָה there-was הָהוּא a-certain תַּלְמִידָא student עַנְיָא poor וְלָא and-not הֲוָה there-was לֵיהּ to-him אֲפִילּוּ even זוּזָא a-zuz
63.16b hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG hahū (ha-HOO) that-M.SG talmīdā (tal-mee-DAA) student-M.SG.EMPH ʿanyā (an-YAA) poor-M.SG.EMPH wə-lā (v'-LAA) and-not hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even zūzā (zoo-ZAA) zuz-M.SG.EMPH
63.17a כׇּל every יוֹמָא day הֲוָה he-was אָזֵיל going לְבֵי to-the-house-of מִדְרְשָׁא study
63.17b kol (KOL) every yōmā (YOH-maa) day-M.SG.EMPH hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG ʾāzēl (aa-ZAYL) go-PTCP.M.SG lə-vē (l'-VAY) to-house-CONST midrəshā (mid-r'-SHAA) study-M.SG.EMPH
63.18a אֲפִילּוּ even בְּסִיתְוָא in-winter הֲוָה he-was אָזֵיל going
63.18b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-sitwā (b'-SIT-vaa) in-winter-M.SG.EMPH hăwā (ha-VAA) be-PERF.3M.SG ʾāzēl (aa-ZAYL) go-PTCP.M.SG
63.19a יוֹמָא day חַד one נְחַת came-down מִטְרָא rain טוּבָא much
63.19b yōmā (YOH-maa) day-M.SG.EMPH ḥad (KHAD) one-M nəḥat (n'-KHAT) descend-PERF.3M.SG miṭrā (mit-RAA) rain-M.SG.EMPH ṭūvā (too-VAA) much
63.20a אֲמַרָה said לֵיהּ to-him אִימֵּיהּ his-mother לָא not תֵּיזִיל you-shall-go הָשְׁתָּא now
63.20b ʾămarā (a-ma-RAA) say-PERF.3F.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾimmēh (im-MAYH) mother-his lā (laa) not tēzīl (tay-ZEEL) go-IMPF.2M.SG hāshtā (HAASH-taa) now
63.21a אֲמַר he-said לַהּ to-her אֲפִילּוּ even בְּמִטְרָא in-the-rain אָזֵילְנָא I-go
63.21b ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG lah (LAH) to-her ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-miṭrā (b'-mit-RAA) in-rain-M.SG.EMPH ʾāzēlnā (aa-ZAYL-naa) go-PTCP.1SG
63.22a בְּאוֹרְחָא on-the-way נַהֲרָא the-river סְלֵיק rose עַל over גִּישְׁרָא the-bridge
63.22b bə-ʾōrḥā (b'-ohr-KHAA) on-way-EMPH nahărā (na-ha-RAA) river-M.SG.EMPH səlēq (s'-LAYQ) go-up-PERF.3M.SG ʿal (AL) over gishrā (gish-RAA) bridge-M.SG.EMPH
63.23a אֲפִילּוּ even הָכִי thus עֲבַר he-crossed וַאֲתָא and-came לְבֵי to-the-house-of מִדְרְשָׁא study
63.23b ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even hākhī (HAA-khee) thus ʿăvar (a-VAR) cross-PERF.3M.SG wa-ʾătā (va-a-TAA) and-come-PERF.3M.SG lə-vē (l'-VAY) to-house-CONST midrəshā (mid-r'-SHAA) study-M.SG.EMPH
63.24a חַזְיֵיהּ saw-him רַבָּה Rabbah אֲמַר he-said לֵיהּ to-him אֲפִילּוּ even בְּיוֹמָא on-a-day כִּי like הַאי this אֲתֵית you-came
63.24b ḥazyēh (khaz-YAYH) see-PERF.3M.SG-him Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-yōmā (b'-YOH-maa) on-day-M.SG.EMPH kī (KEE) like hāy (HAI) this-M ʾătēt (a-TAYT) come-PERF.2M.SG
63.25a אֲמַר he-said לֵיהּ to-him אִין yes דְּלָא for-not בָּעֵינָא I-want לְמִשְׁבַּק to-leave אֲפִילּוּ even יוֹמָא a-day חַד one
63.25b ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him ʾīn (EEN) yes də-lā (d'-LAA) for-not bāʿēnā (baa-'AY-naa) want-PTCP.1SG lə-mishbaq (l'-mish-BAQ) to-leave-INF ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even yōmā (YOH-maa) day-M.SG.EMPH ḥad (KHAD) one-M
63.26a אֲמַר said רַבָּה Rabbah לְתַלְמִידֵיהּ to-his-students חֲזוֹ see אֲפִילּוּ even עַנְיָא a-poor-man דְּלֵית who-there-is-not לֵיהּ to-him מִידֵּי anything אָתֵי comes
63.26b ʾămar (a-MAR) say-PERF.3M.SG Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah lə-talmīdēh (l'-tal-mee-DAYH) to-students-his ḥăzō (kha-ZOH) see-IMP.M.PL ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even ʿanyā (an-YAA) poor-M.SG.EMPH də-lēt (d'-LAYT) who-there-is-not lēh (LAYH) to-him mīddē (MEED-day) anything ʾātē (aa-TAY) come-PTCP.M.SG
63.27a וְאַתּוּן and-you דְּאִית who-there-is לְכוּ to-you כֹּלָּא everything אֲפִילּוּ even בְּיוֹמָא on-a-day דְּשִׁמְשָׁא of-sun לָא not אֲתִיתוּ you-came
63.27b wə-ʾattūn (v'-at-TOON) and-you-M.PL də-ʾīt (d'-EET) who-there-is ləkhū (l'-KHOO) to-you-M.PL kollā (KOL-laa) everything ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-yōmā (b'-YOH-maa) on-day-M.SG.EMPH də-shimshā (d'-shim-SHAA) of-sun-M.SG.EMPH lā (laa) not ʾătītū (a-TEE-too) come-PERF.2M.PL
63.28a יְהַב gave לֵיהּ to-him רַבָּה Rabbah נַהֲמָא bread וּמַיָּא and-water
63.28b yəhav (y'-HAV) give-PERF.3M.SG lēh (LAYH) to-him Rabbā (RAB-baa) Rabbah nahămā (na-ha-MAA) bread-M.SG.EMPH u-mayyā (oo-MAI-yaa) and-water-M.PL.EMPH
63.29a וּמֵהָהוּא and-from-that יוֹמָא day כּוּלְּהוּ all תַּלְמִידֵי the-students הֲווֹ were אָתוּ coming אֲפִילּוּ even בְּיוֹמָא on-a-day דְּמִטְרָא of-rain
63.29b u-mē-hahū (oo-may-ha-HOO) and-from-that-M.SG yōmā (YOH-maa) day-M.SG.EMPH kulləhū (kul-l'-HOO) all-of-them-M talmīdē (tal-mee-DAY) students-M.PL hăwō (ha-VOH) be-PERF.3M.PL ʾātū (aa-TOO) come-PTCP.M.PL ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even bə-yōmā (b'-YOH-maa) on-day-M.SG.EMPH də-miṭrā (d'-mit-RAA) of-rain-M.SG.EMPH
63.30a וְהָהוּא and-that תַּלְמִידָא student עַנְיָא poor לָא not שְׁבַק left גִּירְסָא study אֲפִילּוּ even יוֹמָא a-day חַד one
63.30b wə-hahū (v'-ha-HOO) and-that-M.SG talmīdā (tal-mee-DAA) student-M.SG.EMPH ʿanyā (an-YAA) poor-M.SG.EMPH lā (laa) not shəvaq (sh'-VAQ) leave-PERF.3M.SG gīrsā (geer-SAA) study-F.SG.EMPH ʾăfillū (a-fil-LOO) even yōmā (YOH-maa) day-M.SG.EMPH ḥad (KHAD) one-M
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63.16 הֲוָה הָהוּא תַּלְמִידָא עַנְיָא, וְלָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא. — hăwā hahū talmīdā ʿanyā, wə-lā hăwā lēh ʾăfillū zūzā. — "There was a certain poor student, and he did not have even a zuz."
63.17 כׇּל יוֹמָא הֲוָה אָזֵיל לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא. — kol yōmā hăwā ʾāzēl lə-vē midrəshā. — "Every day he would go to the study house."
63.18 אֲפִילּוּ בְּסִיתְוָא הֲוָה אָזֵיל. — ʾăfillū bə-sitwā hăwā ʾāzēl. — "Even in winter he would go."
63.19 יוֹמָא חַד נְחַת מִטְרָא טוּבָא. — yōmā ḥad nəḥat miṭrā ṭūvā. — "One day heavy rain came down."
63.20 אֲמַרָה לֵיהּ אִימֵּיהּ: לָא תֵּיזִיל הָשְׁתָּא. — ʾămarā lēh ʾimmēh: lā tēzīl hāshtā. — "His mother said to him: Do not go now."
63.21 אֲמַר לַהּ: אֲפִילּוּ בְּמִטְרָא אָזֵילְנָא. — ʾămar lah: ʾăfillū bə-miṭrā ʾāzēlnā. — "He said to her: Even in the rain I am going."
63.22 בְּאוֹרְחָא, נַהֲרָא סְלֵיק עַל גִּישְׁרָא. — bə-ʾōrḥā, nahărā səlēq ʿal gishrā. — "On the way, the river had risen over the bridge."
63.23 אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי עֲבַר, וַאֲתָא לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא. — ʾăfillū hākhī ʿăvar, wa-ʾătā lə-vē midrəshā. — "Even so he crossed, and came to the study house."
63.24 חַזְיֵיהּ רַבָּה, אֲמַר לֵיהּ: אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא כִּי הַאי אֲתֵית? — ḥazyēh Rabbā, ʾămar lēh: ʾăfillū bə-yōmā kī hāy ʾătēt? — "Rabbah saw him and said to him: Even on a day like this you came?"
63.25 אֲמַר לֵיהּ: אִין, דְּלָא בָּעֵינָא לְמִשְׁבַּק אֲפִילּוּ יוֹמָא חַד. — ʾămar lēh: ʾīn, də-lā bāʿēnā lə-mishbaq ʾăfillū yōmā ḥad. — "He said to him: Yes, for I do not want to miss even one day."
63.26 אֲמַר רַבָּה לְתַלְמִידֵיהּ: חֲזוֹ, אֲפִילּוּ עַנְיָא דְּלֵית לֵיהּ מִידֵּי אָתֵי. — ʾămar Rabbā lə-talmīdēh: ḥăzō, ʾăfillū ʿanyā də-lēt lēh mīddē ʾātē. — "Rabbah said to his students: See, even a poor man who has nothing comes."
63.27 וְאַתּוּן, דְּאִית לְכוּ כֹּלָּא, אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּשִׁמְשָׁא לָא אֲתִיתוּ! — wə-ʾattūn, də-ʾīt ləkhū kollā, ʾăfillū bə-yōmā də-shimshā lā ʾătītū! — "And you, who have everything, did not come even on a sunny day!"
63.28 יְהַב לֵיהּ רַבָּה נַהֲמָא וּמַיָּא. — yəhav lēh Rabbā nahămā u-mayyā. — "Rabbah gave him bread and water."
63.29 וּמֵהָהוּא יוֹמָא כּוּלְּהוּ תַּלְמִידֵי הֲווֹ אָתוּ, אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּמִטְרָא. — u-mē-hahū yōmā kulləhū talmīdē hăwō ʾātū, ʾăfillū bə-yōmā də-miṭrā. — "And from that day all the students would come, even on a rainy day."
63.30 וְהָהוּא תַּלְמִידָא עַנְיָא לָא שְׁבַק גִּירְסָא אֲפִילּוּ יוֹמָא חַד. — wə-hahū talmīdā ʿanyā lā shəvaq gīrsā ʾăfillū yōmā ḥad. — "And that poor student did not leave his study for even a single day."
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63.16 הֲוָה הָהוּא תַּלְמִידָא עַנְיָא, וְלָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ אֲפִילּוּ זוּזָא.
63.17 כׇּל יוֹמָא הֲוָה אָזֵיל לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא.
63.18 אֲפִילּוּ בְּסִיתְוָא הֲוָה אָזֵיל.
63.19 יוֹמָא חַד נְחַת מִטְרָא טוּבָא.
63.20 אֲמַרָה לֵיהּ אִימֵּיהּ: לָא תֵּיזִיל הָשְׁתָּא.
63.21 אֲמַר לַהּ: אֲפִילּוּ בְּמִטְרָא אָזֵילְנָא.
63.22 בְּאוֹרְחָא, נַהֲרָא סְלֵיק עַל גִּישְׁרָא.
63.23 אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי עֲבַר, וַאֲתָא לְבֵי מִדְרְשָׁא.
63.24 חַזְיֵיהּ רַבָּה, אֲמַר לֵיהּ: אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא כִּי הַאי אֲתֵית?
63.25 אֲמַר לֵיהּ: אִין, דְּלָא בָּעֵינָא לְמִשְׁבַּק אֲפִילּוּ יוֹמָא חַד.
63.26 אֲמַר רַבָּה לְתַלְמִידֵיהּ: חֲזוֹ, אֲפִילּוּ עַנְיָא דְּלֵית לֵיהּ מִידֵּי אָתֵי.
63.27 וְאַתּוּן, דְּאִית לְכוּ כֹּלָּא, אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּשִׁמְשָׁא לָא אֲתִיתוּ!
63.28 יְהַב לֵיהּ רַבָּה נַהֲמָא וּמַיָּא.
63.29 וּמֵהָהוּא יוֹמָא כּוּלְּהוּ תַּלְמִידֵי הֲווֹ אָתוּ, אֲפִילּוּ בְּיוֹמָא דְּמִטְרָא.
63.30 וְהָהוּא תַּלְמִידָא עַנְיָא לָא שְׁבַק גִּירְסָא אֲפִילּוּ יוֹמָא חַד.
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- A story told with הֲוָה. The story opens הֲוָה הָהוּא תַּלְמִידָא, "there was a certain student" (63.16), and describes his habit with הֲוָה and a participle: הֲוָה אָזֵיל, "he would go" (63.17, 63.18). The single events that break the habit are in the perfect: נְחַת, "came down" (63.19); עֲבַר וַאֲתָא, "he crossed and came" (63.23). The plural habit is הֲווֹ אָתוּ, "they would come" (63.29). - The scale of the story. Each אֲפִילּוּ raises the stakes: not even a zuz (63.16); even in winter (63.18); even in the rain (63.21); even with the river over the bridge, אֲפִילּוּ הָכִי (63.23). Rabbah then turns the scale on his students: even a poor man comes, and you did not come even on a sunny day (63.26, 63.27). - Having and not having. אִית לְכוּ, "you have", word for word "there is to you" (63.27); לֵית לֵיהּ, "he has not" (63.26); in the past, לָא הֲוָה לֵיהּ, "he had not" (63.16). - Feminine and plural verbs. אֲמַרָה, "she said" (63.20), is the feminine of אֲמַר. אֲתֵית, "you came" (63.24), and אֲתִיתוּ, "you (plural) came" (63.27), are the perfect of אֲתָא, "he came" (63.23). - The prohibition. לָא with the imperfect forbids: לָא תֵּיזִיל, "do not go" (63.20), from אֲזַל; compare לָא תִּשְׁבּוֹק, "do not leave" (63.11). - The infinitive after בָּעֵינָא. בָּעֵינָא, "I want", takes an infinitive with לְ-: לְמִשְׁבַּק, "to leave" (63.25), from the same root as שְׁבַק, "he left" (63.30). - "Not even" at the end. The story ends on the smallest unit of time: לָא שְׁבַק … אֲפִילּוּ יוֹמָא חַד, "he did not leave … even one day" (63.30), echoing his own words in 63.25. - כִּי הַאי, "like this". כִּי (kī) is "like, as"; בְּיוֹמָא כִּי הַאי, "on a day like this" (63.24).
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- IPA: /ʔafilˈluː/ - אֲ (alef with hataf patah) = a very short a, quickly said. The alef itself is a light catch in the throat, or silent. - פִ (pe without a dot) = f, because a vowel comes before it. - לּ (lamed with a dot) = a doubled l: hold it a little, fil-loo. The dot (dagesh) doubles the consonant. - וּ (shuruq) = a long oo. - Stress falls on the last syllable: a-fil-LOO.
- IPA: /waʔafilˈluː/ - Before the hataf patah the conjunction takes the same vowel: va-a-fil-LOO, not v'-a-fil-LOO.
- IPA: /leːkˈkaː/ - The dot in the kaf doubles it and keeps it hard: layk-KAA.
- IPA: /mibˈbaʕjaː/ - The bet is doubled; the ע closes the syllable: mib-BA'-yaa.
- IPA: /tsawwaːˈroː/ - צ is ts; the dotted vav is a doubled v (w in the old pronunciation): tsav-vaa-ROH.
- ח (ḥet) in חַד, חֶרֶב, חַדָּה, מוּנַּחַת, הָרַחֲמִים, נְחַת, חַזְיֵיהּ, חֲזוֹ, לְחַבְרֵיהּ: a rasping sound in the throat, like the ch of Scottish loch. Written kh in the respellings. - ע (ʿayin) in יָדַע, מִיבַּעְיָא, יָדְעִינַן, עַנְיָא, עֲבַר, בָּעֵינָא, יִמְנַע, עַצְמוֹ: a voiced sound in the throat, in most modern readings silent or a slight catch. Written ' in the respellings. - ט (ṭet) in טַלְיָא, זוּטַרְתָּא, מִטְרָא, טוּבָא, יִקְטְלֵנִי: originally an emphatic t; most readers today say a plain t. - ק (qof) in תִּשְׁבּוֹק, סְלֵיק, לְמִשְׁבַּק, שְׁבַק, מְקוּבְּלַנִי: originally a k made further back in the throat; most readers today say a plain k. - The mappiq ה in לֵיהּ, לַהּ, רַבֵּיהּ, מִינֵּיהּ, אִימֵּיהּ, לְחַבְרֵיהּ, לְתַלְמִידֵיהּ: the final h is really breathed out.
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Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)