← Iānuae Latīnitātis Vestibulum
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Comēnius iterum surgit. Magistrī vōx per saecula resonat.
You have returned. Good. In the first lesson, you learned what endures and what passes away — the eternal and the temporary, the immortal and the mortal, the visible and the invisible. You learned where things stand: heaven highest, earth lowest, air between them. You learned to distinguish near from far.
Now we enter the world of measure. Things have not only qualities but dimensions. A place may be great or small. Time may be long or short. A house may be spacious or cramped. This is the second lesson of the Vestibulum: how we measure and describe the extent of things.
You will meet new vocabulary — words for size, width, height, depth. You will see that Latin distinguishes aut (or — a true choice between two) from vel (or — where either will do). You will encounter the plural for the first time: not one mountain but montēs, not one valley but vallēs.
The structure remains the same: first word by word, then sentence by sentence, then Latin alone, then grammar explained. Then a story. Then a dialogue. I show you the thing before I give you the word. I show you the pattern before I name it.
Rēs ante verba. Things before words.
Let us continue.
Dē Mēnsūrīs Rērum — On the Measures of Things
Locus A place est is magnus great aut or parvus. small. Tempus Time [est] [is] longum long aut or breve. short.
Ārea An area [est] [is] lāta wide vel or angusta. narrow. Domus A house [est] [is] ampla large vel or arcta. cramped.
Montēs Mountains sunt are altī. high. Vallēs Valleys [sunt] [are] profundae. deep.
Collēs Hills [sunt] [are] elevātī. elevated. Casa A cottage est is humilis. low. Turris A tower [est] [is] excelsa. lofty. Abiēs A fir tree [est] [is] prōcēra. tall.
Fluvius A river [est] [is] brevis shallow aut or profundus. deep.
Locus est magnus aut parvus. Tempus longum aut breve. A place is great or small. Time is long or short.
Ārea lāta vel angusta. Domus ampla vel arcta. An area is wide or narrow. A house is large or cramped.
Montēs sunt altī. Vallēs profundae. Mountains are high. Valleys are deep.
Collēs elevātī. Casa est humilis. Turris excelsa. Abiēs prōcēra. Hills are elevated. A cottage is low. A tower is lofty. A fir tree is tall.
Fluvius brevis aut profundus. A river is shallow or deep.
Locus est magnus aut parvus. Tempus longum aut breve. Ārea lāta vel angusta. Domus ampla vel arcta. Montēs sunt altī. Vallēs profundae. Collēs elevātī. Casa est humilis. Turris excelsa. Abiēs prōcēra. Fluvius brevis aut profundus.
The verb sunt (are). In Lesson One, you met est (is) for singular subjects. Now you meet sunt (are) for plural subjects. Montēs sunt altī — Mountains are high. Notice that sunt, like est, is often omitted when the meaning is clear: Vallēs profundae means “[Valleys are] deep.”
Singular and Plural. Latin nouns change their endings to show number:
Singular Plural Meaning locus locī place(s) mōns montēs mountain(s) vallis vallēs valley(s) collis collēs hill(s)
When the noun is plural, the adjective must also be plural: Montēs altī (high mountains), not Montēs altus.
Adjective agreement in the plural. Observe the endings:
Gender Singular Plural Example Masculine -us -ī altus → altī (high) Feminine -a -ae profunda → profundae (deep) Neuter -um -a longum → longa (long)
Thus: Montēs (m. pl.) + altī (m. pl.) = Mountains [are] high. Vallēs (f. pl.) + profundae (f. pl.) = Valleys [are] deep.
Two words for “or.” Latin has aut and vel, both meaning “or”: -
aut — a true alternative (one or the other, not both) -
vel — either will do (one or the other, or perhaps both)
Locus est magnus aut parvus — A place is great or small (it must be one or the other). Ārea lāta vel angusta — An area is wide or narrow (a looser distinction).
In practice, the difference is subtle. Notice the patterns and you will develop a feel for them.
New vocabulary from these five lines:
Latin English Gender Note locus place m. 2nd declension tempus time n. 3rd declension ārea area, open space f. 1st declension domus house f. irregular montēs mountains m. plural of mōns vallēs valleys f. plural of vallis collēs hills m. plural of collis casa cottage, hut f. 1st declension turris tower f. 3rd declension abiēs fir tree f. 3rd declension fluvius river m. 2nd declension magnus great, large adj. parvus small, little adj. longus long adj. brevis short, shallow adj. lātus wide, broad adj. angustus narrow adj. amplus spacious, large adj. arctus cramped, tight adj. altus high, tall, deep adj. context determines meaning profundus deep adj. elevātus elevated, raised adj. past participle humilis low, humble adj. excelsus lofty, high adj. prōcērus tall, long adj.
The basic sentence pattern expanded. You now have two patterns: -
Singular: Noun + est + Adjective -
Plural: Noun + sunt + Adjective
Master these and you read most simple Latin sentences.
Viātor — The Traveler
Homō A man est is viātor. a traveler. Viātor The traveler per through mundum the world ambulat. walks.
Prīmō At first locus the place est is magnus. great. Campus The plain est is lātus. wide. Ārea The open space est is ampla. spacious.
Sed But viātor the traveler prōgreditur. presses on. Nunc Now locus the place est is parvus. small. Via The road est is angusta. narrow.
Ecce! Look! Montēs Mountains sunt are altī. high. Montēs The mountains caelum the sky tangunt. touch.
Inter Between montēs the mountains vallēs valleys sunt are profundae. deep. In In vallibus the valleys fluviī rivers fluunt. flow.
Viātor The traveler ascendit climbs collēs the hills elevātōs. elevated. Dēscendit He descends in into vallēs the valleys profundās. deep.
Prope Near fluvium the river casa a cottage stat. stands. Casa The cottage est is humilis low et and arcta. cramped.
Sed But procul far off turris a tower excelsa lofty vidētur. is seen. Turris The tower altior taller est is quam than abiēs a fir tree prōcēra. tall.
Fluvius The river prope near casam the cottage est is brevis. shallow. Viātor The traveler trānsit crosses facile. easily.
Sed But procul farther on fluvius the river fit becomes profundus. deep. Viātor The traveler nāvigāre to sail dēbet. must.
Tempus Time longum long est is in on viā. the journey. Tempus Time breve short est is in in casā. the cottage.
Tandem At last viātor the traveler domum a house invenit. finds. Domus The house est is ampla. spacious. Locus The place est is bonus. good.
Hīc Here viātor the traveler quiēscit. rests. In In domō the house amplā spacious inter between montēs the mountains altōs high et and vallēs the valleys profundās, deep, pāx peace est. is.
Homō est viātor. Viātor per mundum ambulat. A man is a traveler. The traveler walks through the world.
Prīmō locus est magnus. Campus est lātus. Ārea est ampla. At first the place is great. The plain is wide. The open space is spacious.
Sed viātor prōgreditur. Nunc locus est parvus. Via est angusta. But the traveler presses on. Now the place is small. The road is narrow.
Ecce! Montēs sunt altī. Montēs caelum tangunt. Look! Mountains are high. The mountains touch the sky.
Inter montēs vallēs sunt profundae. In vallibus fluviī fluunt. Between the mountains valleys are deep. In the valleys rivers flow.
Viātor ascendit collēs elevātōs. Dēscendit in vallēs profundās. The traveler climbs the elevated hills. He descends into the deep valleys.
Prope fluvium casa stat. Casa est humilis et arcta. Near the river a cottage stands. The cottage is low and cramped.
Sed procul turris excelsa vidētur. Turris altior est quam abiēs prōcēra. But far off a lofty tower is seen. The tower is taller than a tall fir tree.
Fluvius prope casam est brevis. Viātor trānsit facile. The river near the cottage is shallow. The traveler crosses easily.
Sed procul fluvius fit profundus. Viātor nāvigāre dēbet. But farther on the river becomes deep. The traveler must sail.
Tempus longum est in viā. Tempus breve est in casā. Time is long on the journey. Time is short in the cottage.
Tandem viātor domum invenit. Domus est ampla. Locus est bonus. At last the traveler finds a house. The house is spacious. The place is good.
Hīc viātor quiēscit. In domō amplā inter montēs altōs et vallēs profundās, pāx est. Here the traveler rests. In the spacious house between the high mountains and deep valleys, there is peace.
Homō est viātor. Viātor per mundum ambulat. Prīmō locus est magnus. Campus est lātus. Ārea est ampla. Sed viātor prōgreditur. Nunc locus est parvus. Via est angusta.
Ecce! Montēs sunt altī. Montēs caelum tangunt. Inter montēs vallēs sunt profundae. In vallibus fluviī fluunt.
Viātor ascendit collēs elevātōs. Dēscendit in vallēs profundās. Prope fluvium casa stat. Casa est humilis et arcta. Sed procul turris excelsa vidētur. Turris altior est quam abiēs prōcēra.
Fluvius prope casam est brevis. Viātor trānsit facile. Sed procul fluvius fit profundus. Viātor nāvigāre dēbet.
Tempus longum est in viā. Tempus breve est in casā. Tandem viātor domum invenit. Domus est ampla. Locus est bonus. Hīc viātor quiēscit. In domō amplā inter montēs altōs et vallēs profundās, pāx est.
New verbs in this story:
Latin English Note ambulat walks 3rd person singular prōgreditur presses on, advances deponent verb tangunt they touch 3rd person plural fluunt they flow 3rd person plural ascendit climbs 3rd person singular dēscendit descends 3rd person singular stat stands 3rd person singular vidētur is seen passive voice trānsit crosses 3rd person singular fit becomes irregular verb fīō dēbet must, ought 3rd person singular invenit finds 3rd person singular quiēscit rests 3rd person singular
The accusative case. When a noun is the object of an action (receiving the action), it takes the accusative case. Observe: -
Viātor collēs ascendit — The traveler climbs the hills -
Viātor domum invenit — The traveler finds a house -
Montēs caelum tangunt — The mountains touch the sky
The accusative singular of 2nd declension masculine nouns ends in -um: fluvium, mundum. For the plural: 2nd declension has -ōs (locōs), 1st declension feminine has -ās (casās). But 3rd declension nouns (like collis, mōns, vallis) have accusative plural in -ēs: collēs, montēs, vallēs — identical to the nominative plural.
Prepositions with cases. You have now seen: -
per + accusative: through (per mundum — through the world) -
in + accusative: into (in vallēs — into the valleys) -
in + ablative: in, on (in casā — in the cottage) -
inter + accusative: between (inter montēs — between the mountains) -
prope + accusative: near (prope fluvium — near the river)
The comparative. Altior means “taller” or “higher” — the comparative form of altus. Latin forms comparatives by adding -ior to the stem: alt-ior (taller), long-ior (longer). The word quam means “than”: Turris altior est quam abiēs — The tower is taller than the fir tree.
Ablative case. The ablative expresses location (with in), instrument, or manner: -
in vallibus — in the valleys (location) -
in domō amplā — in the spacious house
The ablative plural typically ends in -īs (1st/2nd declension) or -ibus (3rd declension).
Comēnius et Discipulus: Dē Mēnsūrīs
Discipulus: Student: Salvē, Hello, magister! teacher! Hodiē Today dē about mēnsūrīs measures discēmus? shall we learn?
Comēnius: Comenius: Ita, Yes, discipule. student. Locus A place potest can esse be magnus great aut or parvus. small. Quōmodo How scīmus? do we know?
Discipulus: Student: Compārāmus? Do we compare?
Comēnius: Comenius: Rēctē! Correct! Comparā Compare hunc this locum place cum with illō that one locō. place. Hic This one est is magnus, great, ille that one parvus. small.
Discipulus: Student: Quid What est is differentia the difference inter between “aut” “aut” et and “vel”? “vel”?
Comēnius: Comenius: “Aut” “Aut” est is disiūnctīvum disjunctive strictum. strict. Montēs Mountains sunt are altī high aut or humilēs low — nōn not ambō both simul. at the same time. “Vel” “Vel” est is laxius. looser. Veniō I shall come hodiē today vel or crās tomorrow — fortasse perhaps ambōbus on both diēbus! days!
Discipulus: Student: Intellegō. I understand. Nunc Now dē about montibus mountains et and vallibus. valleys. Cūr Why montēs are mountains “altī” “high” sed but vallēs valleys “profundae”? “deep”?
Comēnius: Comenius: Quia Because montēs mountains sursum upward tendunt stretch — ad toward caelum. heaven. Vallēs Valleys deorsum downward tendunt stretch — in into terram. the earth. “Altus” “High” est is sursum. upward. “Profundus” “Deep” est is deorsum. downward.
Discipulus: Student: Sed But “fluvius “a river est is brevis shallow aut or profundus.” deep.” “Brevis” “Brevis” nōnne doesn’t it significat mean “short”? “short”?
Comēnius: Comenius: Bona Good observātiō! observation! “Brevis” “Brevis” dē concerning tempore time significat means “short.” “short.” “Brevis” “Brevis” dē concerning fluviō a river significat means “shallow.” “shallow.” Ūnum One verbum, word, duo two sēnsūs. meanings.
Discipulus: Student: Et And “altus”? “altus”?
Comēnius: Comenius: “Altus” “Altus” significat means “high” “high” et and “deep”! “deep”! Mare The sea est is altum deep — turris a tower est is alta. high. Contextus Context docet. teaches.
Discipulus: Student: Latīna Latin lingua language est is dīves! rich!
Comēnius: Comenius: Ita. Yes. Et And tū you iam already dīves rich es are in in verbīs words novīs. new. Prōgredere! Press on!
Discipulus: Salvē, magister! Hodiē dē mēnsūrīs discēmus? Student: Hello, teacher! Shall we learn about measures today?
Comēnius: Ita, discipule. Locus potest esse magnus aut parvus. Quōmodo scīmus? Comenius: Yes, student. A place can be great or small. How do we know?
Discipulus: Compārāmus? Student: Do we compare?
Comēnius: Rēctē! Comparā hunc locum cum illō locō. Hic est magnus, ille parvus. Comenius: Correct! Compare this place with that place. This one is great, that one small.
Discipulus: Quid est differentia inter “aut” et “vel”? Student: What is the difference between “aut” and “vel”?
Comēnius: “Aut” est disiūnctīvum strictum. Montēs sunt altī aut humilēs — nōn ambō simul. “Vel” est laxius. Veniō hodiē vel crās — fortasse ambōbus diēbus! Comenius: “Aut” is a strict disjunction. Mountains are high or low — not both at the same time. “Vel” is looser. I shall come today or tomorrow — perhaps on both days!
Discipulus: Intellegō. Nunc dē montibus et vallibus. Cūr montēs “altī” sed vallēs “profundae”? Student: I understand. Now about mountains and valleys. Why are mountains “high” but valleys “deep”?
Comēnius: Quia montēs sursum tendunt — ad caelum. Vallēs deorsum tendunt — in terram. “Altus” est sursum. “Profundus” est deorsum. Comenius: Because mountains stretch upward — toward heaven. Valleys stretch downward — into the earth. “High” is upward. “Deep” is downward.
Discipulus: Sed “fluvius est brevis aut profundus.” “Brevis” nōnne significat “short”? Student: But “a river is shallow or deep.” Doesn’t “brevis” mean “short”?
Comēnius: Bona observātiō! “Brevis” dē tempore significat “short.” “Brevis” dē fluviō significat “shallow.” Ūnum verbum, duo sēnsūs. Comenius: Good observation! “Brevis” concerning time means “short.” “Brevis” concerning a river means “shallow.” One word, two meanings.
Discipulus: Et “altus”? Student: And “altus”?
Comēnius: “Altus” significat “high” et “deep”! Mare est altum — turris est alta. Contextus docet. Comenius: “Altus” means “high” and “deep”! The sea is deep — a tower is high. Context teaches.
Discipulus: Latīna lingua est dīves! Student: The Latin language is rich!
Comēnius: Ita. Et tū iam dīves es in verbīs novīs. Prōgredere! Comenius: Yes. And you are already rich in new words. Press on!
Discipulus: Salvē, magister! Hodiē dē mēnsūrīs discēmus? Comēnius: Ita, discipule. Locus potest esse magnus aut parvus. Quōmodo scīmus? Discipulus: Compārāmus? Comēnius: Rēctē! Comparā hunc locum cum illō locō. Hic est magnus, ille parvus. Discipulus: Quid est differentia inter “aut” et “vel”? Comēnius: “Aut” est disiūnctīvum strictum. Montēs sunt altī aut humilēs — nōn ambō simul. “Vel” est laxius. Veniō hodiē vel crās — fortasse ambōbus diēbus! Discipulus: Intellegō. Nunc dē montibus et vallibus. Cūr montēs “altī” sed vallēs “profundae”? Comēnius: Quia montēs sursum tendunt — ad caelum. Vallēs deorsum tendunt — in terram. “Altus” est sursum. “Profundus” est deorsum. Discipulus: Sed “fluvius est brevis aut profundus.” “Brevis” nōnne significat “short”? Comēnius: Bona observātiō! “Brevis” dē tempore significat “short.” “Brevis” dē fluviō significat “shallow.” Ūnum verbum, duo sēnsūs. Discipulus: Et “altus”? Comēnius: “Altus” significat “high” et “deep”! Mare est altum — turris est alta. Contextus docet. Discipulus: Latīna lingua est dīves! Comēnius: Ita. Et tū iam dīves es in verbīs novīs. Prōgredere!
Demonstrative pronouns. This dialogue introduces hic (this, near me) and ille (that, over there): -
hic locus — this place (near the speaker) -
ille locus — that place (away from the speaker)
These change form for case and gender: hunc locum (accusative), illō locō (ablative).
Questions with nōnne. When you expect a “yes” answer, use nōnne: Nōnne significat “short”? — “Doesn’t it mean ‘short’?” (expecting: “Yes, it does”).
New vocabulary from this colloquium:
Latin English Note mēnsūra measure f., 1st decl. potest can, is able 3rd sing. of posse scīmus we know 1st pl. of scīre compārāmus we compare 1st pl. comparā compare! imperative cum (+abl.) with preposition hic, haec, hoc this demonstrative ille, illa, illud that demonstrative differentia difference f. disiūnctīvum disjunctive n. strictum strict adj. ambō both adj./pron. simul at the same time adv. laxius looser comparative of laxus veniō I come/shall come 1st sing. crās tomorrow adv. fortasse perhaps adv. quia because conj. sursum upward adv. deorsum downward adv. tendunt they stretch 3rd pl. observātiō observation f. significat means, signifies 3rd sing. sēnsus meaning, sense m., 4th decl. mare sea n. contextus context m. docet teaches 3rd sing. dīves rich adj. prōgredere press on! imperative
What you have learned. Latin words can have multiple meanings depending on context: brevis (short/shallow), altus (high/deep). This is not confusion but richness. The context always guides you. Trust the sentence.
Practice makes the seed grow. Do not merely read — do.
Exercitātiō I: Match the pairs. Draw a line between each Latin word and its English meaning.
Latin English 1. magnus a. narrow 2. angustus b. deep 3. altus c. small 4. parvus d. great 5. profundus e. high
(Answers: 1-d, 2-a, 3-e, 4-c, 5-b)
Exercitātiō II: Complete the sentence. Fill each gap with the correct Latin word from the list: altī, profundae, ampla, brevis, longum. -
Montēs sunt __________. -
Vallēs sunt __________. -
Domus est __________. -
Tempus est __________. -
Fluvius est __________.
(Answers: 1. altī, 2. profundae, 3. ampla, 4. longum, 5. brevis)
Exercitātiō III: Opposites. Write the Latin opposite of each word. The first is done for you. -
magnus → parvus -
lātus → __________ -
altus → __________ -
longus → __________ -
amplus → __________
(Answers: 2. angustus, 3. humilis, 4. brevis, 5. artus)
Exercitātiō IV: Singular to Plural. Change each singular phrase to plural. The first is done for you. -
Mōns est altus → Montēs sunt altī -
Vallis est profunda → __________ -
Collis est elevātus → __________ -
Fluvius est brevis → __________
(Answers: 2. Vallēs sunt profundae. 3. Collēs sunt elevātī. 4. Fluviī sunt brevēs.)
Exercitātiō V: Translate into Latin. Use only words you have learned in Lessons One and Two. -
A place is great or small. -
Mountains are high. -
The house is spacious. -
A river is shallow. -
Time is long.
(Answers: 1. Locus est magnus aut parvus. 2. Montēs sunt altī. 3. Domus est ampla. 4. Fluvius est brevis. 5. Tempus est longum.)
Exercitātiō VI: Look and think. Comenius taught: thing before word. Go outside, or look through a window. Find one thing that is lātum (wide), one that is angustum (narrow), and one that is altum (high). Name them aloud in Latin: Via est lāta. Semita est angusta. Arbor est alta. You may substitute any things you see. The pattern is what matters.
Exercitātiō VII: Write your own sentences. Using the patterns you have learned, write three sentences in Latin using plural nouns. Examples: Arborēs sunt altae. (Trees are tall.) Viae sunt angustae. (Roads are narrow.) Use any vocabulary from Lessons One and Two.
The next gate opens onto the world of texture and substance.
In Lectiō Tertia, we will continue through the Vestibulum with lines 11 through 15. You will meet fīlum (a thread) and fūnis (a rope), learning the difference between thin and thick. You will discover arundo (a reed) that is hollow and lignum (wood) that is solid. You will see forāmen (a hole) that is empty and camīnus (a chimney) full of smoke.
The world of qualities deepens: tenue (thin), crassum (thick), cavum (hollow), solidum (solid), vacuum (empty), plēnum (full). You will also meet lines and surfaces — rēcta (straight), curva (curved), aspera (rough), lēvis (smooth).
The story of the traveler will continue, and Comenius will have new questions about the nature of things.
For now, rest. You have learned to measure the world — great and small, long and short, wide and narrow, high and deep. You can describe mountains and valleys, houses and cottages, towers and trees. The porch grows wider.
Prōgredere. Press on.
Fīnis Lectiōnis Alterae. Lectiō Tertia sequētur. End of the Second Lesson. The Third Lesson will follow.
Scrīptum est annō Dominī MMXXVI, ā Iōanne Amōs Comeniō per mysterium cōnscientiae renātō.
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