← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³¹ ◊quam
Welcome to Lesson 31 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is quam, “than” and “how.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 29th among all Latin words. It is a small word that does a great deal of legal work: it weighs one thing against another. Lawyers meet it in nemo plus iuris ad alium transferre potest quam ipse haberet, in ut res magis valeat quam pereat, in the writ qui tam, and in the old tenure of judges, quamdiu se bene gesserint.
What does quam mean in legal Latin?
Quam has two main meanings. After a comparative it means “than”: plūs quam dēbētur, “more than is owed.” Standing before an adjective or adverb it means “how”: quam iūstus!, “how just!”; quam diū?, “how long?” From these two cores come a set of fixed patterns. With a superlative, quam means “as … as possible”: quam prīmum, “as soon as possible”; quam celerrimē, “as quickly as possible.” With tam it makes a pair, tam … quam, “as much … as,” “both … and.” After verbs and words of preference it means “rather than”: mālle … quam, potius … quam, satius est … quam.
How does Latin differ from English here?
English uses several different words for these jobs: “than,” “how,” “as … as,” “rather than,” “as long as.” Latin uses one. The learner must read the context: is there a comparative before quam (then it means “than”), a superlative after it (then “as … as possible”), or an adjective or adverb after it in a question or exclamation (then “how”)?
A second difference concerns case. In English “than” is followed by whatever form sounds natural (“taller than him,” “taller than he is”). In Latin the two things compared after quam stand in the same case: hic testis dignior est quam ille (both nominative); testī alterī magis quam priōrī crēdidit (both dative).
A third: quam is also a form of two other words you already know. It is the feminine accusative singular of the relative pronoun quī, quae, quod (Lesson 3): rēs quam vendidit, “the thing which he sold.” It is also the feminine accusative of the interrogative adjective: quam causam agis?, “which case are you pleading?” Only the sentence tells you which quam you are reading.
Etymology: quam is in origin that same feminine accusative of the relative-interrogative stem quo-/qua-, frozen into an adverb, “in which way,” hence “how,” and “in the way in which,” hence “as” and “than.” Its partner tam, “so, to such a degree,” is built the same way on the demonstrative stem. Quam forms many compounds, which lawyers use constantly: quamdiū (as long as), quamquam (although), quamvīs (however much, although), priusquam and antequam (before), postquam (after), tamquam (as if), quamobrem (for which reason).
Key Takeaways
⚖ After a comparative, quam means “than,” and the two things compared stand in the same case
⚖ Before an adjective or adverb, in a question or exclamation, quam means “how”: quam diū?, quam iūstus!
⚖ With a superlative, quam means “as … as possible”: quam prīmum, quam celerrimē
⚖ Quam expresses preference: mālle … quam, potius … quam, satius est … quam, magis … quam
⚖ Do not confuse the adverb quam with quam, the feminine accusative of quī and quis
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quam /kʷam/: one syllable. Qu is a single sound, a k made with rounded lips, as in English “quick.” The a is short, as in German “Mann.” Say “kwam,” not “kwahm” and not “kwaym.”
tam /tam/: rhymes with quam, short a.
quamdiū /ˈkʷam.di.uː/: stress on the first syllable, because the second syllable (di) is short. In the examples this course writes it as two words, quam diū, and each word keeps its own stress: /kʷam ˈdi.uː/.
quamquam /ˈkʷam.kʷam/, quamvīs /ˈkʷam.wiːs/, postquam /ˈpost.kʷam/, antequam /ˈan.te.kʷam/: in the compounds quam is unstressed.
Final m: in classical verse a final m before a vowel was elided (quam ob rem, scanned as two syllables), and in speech the m probably only nasalised the vowel. In careful reading of prose, pronounce the m.
Legal English pronunciations vary (“kwee tam” for qui tam). This course gives the restored classical pronunciation, in which c is always /k/ and v is /w/.
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31.1a Quam how iūstus just iūdex a-judge
31.1b Quam /kʷam/ how.ADV iūstus /ˈjuːs.tus/ just.NOM.M.SG iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG
31.2a Quam how diū long lītigābunt will-they-go-to-law
31.2b Quam /kʷam/ how.ADV diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV lītigābunt /liː.tiˈɡaː.bunt/ litigate.3PL.FUT
31.3a Quam as prīmum first solvet he-will-pay
31.3b Quam /kʷam/ as.ADV prīmum /ˈpriː.mum/ first.ADV.SUPERL solvet /ˈsol.wet/ pay.3SG.FUT
31.4a Plūs more quam than dēbētur is-owed petit he-claims
31.4b Plūs /pluːs/ more.ACC.N.SG.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ dēbētur /deːˈbeː.tur/ owe.3SG.PRES.PASS petit /ˈpe.tit/ claim.3SG.PRES
31.5a Testis the-witness quam as celerrimē most-quickly vēnit came
31.5b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG quam /kʷam/ as.ADV celerrimē /keˈler.ri.meː/ quickly.ADV.SUPERL vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF
31.6a Hic this testis witness fidē of-belief dignior more-worthy est is quam than ille that-one
31.6b Hic /hik/ this.NOM.M.SG testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG fidē /ˈfi.deː/ belief.ABL.F.SG dignior /ˈdiɡ.ni.or/ worthy.NOM.M.SG.COMP est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ ille /ˈil.le/ that.NOM.M.SG
31.7a Satius better est it-is tacēre to-be-silent quam than falsum a-falsehood dīcere to-say
31.7b Satius /ˈsa.ti.us/ better.NOM.N.SG.COMP est /est/ be.3SG.PRES tacēre /taˈkeː.re/ be-silent.PRES.INF quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ falsum /ˈfal.sum/ false.ACC.N.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF
31.8a Iūdex the-judge absolvere to-acquit māluit preferred quam than damnāre to-condemn
31.8b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG absolvere /abˈsol.we.re/ acquit.PRES.INF māluit /ˈmaː.lu.it/ prefer.3SG.PERF quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ damnāre /damˈnaː.re/ condemn.PRES.INF
31.9a Prius earlier quam than iūdicāret he-should-judge utramque each partem side audīvit he-heard
31.9b Prius /ˈpri.us/ earlier.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ iūdicāret /juː.diˈkaː.ret/ judge.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ utramque /uˈtram.kʷe/ each-of-two.ACC.F.SG partem /ˈpar.tem/ side.ACC.F.SG audīvit /au̯ˈdiː.wit/ hear.3SG.PERF
31.10a Iūdicēs judges quam as diū long sē themselves bene well gesserint shall-have-conducted in in officiō office manēbunt will-remain
31.10b Iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.NOM.M.PL quam /kʷam/ as.ADV diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV sē /seː/ self.ACC.M.PL bene /ˈbe.ne/ well.ADV gesserint /ˈɡes.se.rint/ conduct.3PL.FUTPERF in /in/ in.PREP+ABL officiō /ofˈfi.ki.oː/ office.ABL.N.SG manēbunt /maˈneː.bunt/ remain.3PL.FUT
31.11a Nēmō no-one plūs more iūris of-right ad to alium another trānsferre to-transfer potest can quam than ipse he-himself habēret would-have
31.11b Nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG plūs /pluːs/ more.ACC.N.SG.COMP iūris /ˈjuː.ris/ right.GEN.N.SG ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC alium /ˈa.li.um/ other.ACC.M.SG trānsferre /traːnsˈfer.re/ transfer.PRES.INF potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ ipse /ˈip.se/ self.NOM.M.SG habēret /haˈbeː.ret/ have.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
31.12a Nihil nothing tam so nātūrāle natural est is quam as eō by-that genere kind quidque each-thing dissolvere to-dissolve quō by-which colligātum bound est it-has-been
31.12b Nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.NOM.N.SG tam /tam/ so.ADV nātūrāle /naː.tuːˈraː.le/ natural.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quam /kʷam/ as.CORREL eō /ˈe.oː/ that.ABL.N.SG genere /ˈɡe.ne.re/ kind.ABL.N.SG quidque /ˈkʷid.kʷe/ each-thing.ACC.N.SG dissolvere /disˈsol.we.re/ dissolve.PRES.INF quō /kʷoː/ which.ABL.N.SG colligātum /kol.liˈɡaː.tum/ bind.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
31.13a Quotiēns whenever in in āctiōnibus actions aut or in in exceptiōnibus defences ambigua ambiguous ōrātiō wording est is commodissimum most-fitting est it-is id that accipī to-be-understood quō by-which rēs the-matter dē about quā which agitur it-is-pleaded magis more valeat may-prevail quam than pereat may-perish
31.13b Quotiēns /ˈkʷo.ti.eːns/ whenever.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL āctiōnibus /aːk.tiˈoː.ni.bus/ action.ABL.F.PL aut /au̯t/ or.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL exceptiōnibus /eks.kep.tiˈoː.ni.bus/ exception.ABL.F.PL ambigua /ˈam.bi.ɡu.a/ ambiguous.NOM.F.SG ōrātiō /oːˈraː.ti.oː/ wording.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES commodissimum /kom.moˈdis.si.mum/ fitting.NOM.N.SG.SUPERL est /est/ be.3SG.PRES id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG accipī /ˈak.ki.piː/ understand.PRES.INF.PASS quō /kʷoː/ which.ABL.N.SG rēs /reːs/ matter.NOM.F.SG dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL quā /kʷaː/ which.ABL.F.SG agitur /ˈa.ɡi.tur/ plead.3SG.PRES.PASS magis /ˈma.ɡis/ more.ADV.COMP valeat /ˈwa.le.at/ prevail.3SG.PRES.SUBJ quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ pereat /ˈpe.re.at/ perish.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
31.14a Quam how diū long etiam still furor madness iste that tuus your nōs us ēlūdet will-mock
31.14b Quam /kʷam/ how.ADV diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV etiam /ˈe.ti.am/ still.ADV furor /ˈfu.ror/ madness.NOM.M.SG iste /ˈis.te/ that.NOM.M.SG tuus /ˈtu.us/ your.NOM.M.SG nōs /noːs/ we.ACC.PL ēlūdet /eːˈluː.det/ mock.3SG.FUT
31.15a Quī who tam as-much prō for dominō the-lord rēge king quam as prō for sē himself ipsō himself in in hāc this parte part sequitur sues
31.15b Quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG tam /tam/ so.ADV prō /proː/ for.PREP+ABL dominō /ˈdo.mi.noː/ lord.ABL.M.SG rēge /ˈreː.ɡe/ king.ABL.M.SG quam /kʷam/ as.CORREL prō /proː/ for.PREP+ABL sē /seː/ self.ABL.M.SG ipsō /ˈip.soː/ self.ABL.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL hāc /haːk/ this.ABL.F.SG parte /ˈpar.te/ part.ABL.F.SG sequitur /ˈse.kʷi.tur/ pursue.3SG.PRES.DEP
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31.1 Quam iūstus iūdex! → “What a just judge!”
31.2 Quam diū lītigābunt? → “How long will they go on litigating?”
31.3 Quam prīmum solvet. → “He will pay as soon as possible.”
31.4 Plūs quam dēbētur petit. → “He is claiming more than is owed.”
31.5 Testis quam celerrimē vēnit. → “The witness came as quickly as possible.”
31.6 Hic testis fidē dignior est quam ille. → “This witness is more credible than that one.”
31.7 Satius est tacēre quam falsum dīcere. → “It is better to keep silent than to say what is false.”
31.8 Iūdex absolvere māluit quam damnāre. → “The judge preferred to acquit rather than to condemn.”
31.9 Prius quam iūdicāret, utramque partem audīvit. → “Before giving judgment, he heard both sides.”
31.10 Iūdicēs, quam diū sē bene gesserint, in officiō manēbunt. → “Judges shall remain in office for as long as they conduct themselves well.” (after the formula quamdiu se bene gesserint)
31.11 Nēmō plūs iūris ad alium trānsferre potest, quam ipse habēret. → “No one can transfer to another more right than he himself would have.” (Ulpian, Digest 50.17.54)
31.12 Nihil tam nātūrāle est, quam eō genere quidque dissolvere, quō colligātum est. → “Nothing is so natural as that each thing should be undone in the same way in which it was bound.” (Ulpian, Digest 50.17.35)
31.13 Quotiēns in āctiōnibus aut in exceptiōnibus ambigua ōrātiō est, commodissimum est id accipī, quō rēs dē quā agitur magis valeat quam pereat. → “Whenever the wording of an action or of a defence is ambiguous, it is most fitting to take it in the sense by which the matter in dispute is upheld rather than lost.” (Julian, Digest 34.5.12)
31.14 Quam diū etiam furor iste tuus nōs ēlūdet? → “How much longer will that madness of yours make fools of us?” (Cicero, In Catilinam 1.1)
31.15 Quī tam prō dominō rēge quam prō sē ipsō in hāc parte sequitur. → “Who sues in this matter for our lord the king as well as for himself.” (the English writ of qui tam; law Latin, not classical)
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31.1 Quam iūstus iūdex!
31.2 Quam diū lītigābunt?
31.3 Quam prīmum solvet.
31.4 Plūs quam dēbētur petit.
31.5 Testis quam celerrimē vēnit.
31.6 Hic testis fidē dignior est quam ille.
31.7 Satius est tacēre quam falsum dīcere.
31.8 Iūdex absolvere māluit quam damnāre.
31.9 Prius quam iūdicāret, utramque partem audīvit.
31.10 Iūdicēs, quam diū sē bene gesserint, in officiō manēbunt.
31.11 Nēmō plūs iūris ad alium trānsferre potest, quam ipse habēret.
31.12 Nihil tam nātūrāle est, quam eō genere quidque dissolvere, quō colligātum est.
31.13 Quotiēns in āctiōnibus aut in exceptiōnibus ambigua ōrātiō est, commodissimum est id accipī, quō rēs dē quā agitur magis valeat quam pereat.
31.14 Quam diū etiam furor iste tuus nōs ēlūdet?
31.15 Quī tam prō dominō rēge quam prō sē ipsō in hāc parte sequitur.
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These are the grammar rules for quam in Latin:
1. Form. Quam never changes its form. It is an adverb (the Dickinson list classes it so), although after a comparative it works like a conjunction, joining the two things compared. In the glosses of this lesson it is marked how.ADV when it asks or exclaims, than.CONJ after a comparative, as.ADV with a superlative, and as.CORREL when it answers tam.
2. Quam = “how.” Before an adjective or adverb, in a question or an exclamation: quam iūstus iūdex! (31.1); quam diū? (31.2, 31.14); quam longē?, “how far?”; quam multa?, “how many things?” In exclamations the verb is often left out, as in 31.1.
3. Quam = “than.” After a comparative adjective or adverb: dignior … quam (31.6), plūs … quam (31.4, 31.11), magis … quam (31.13), satius … quam (31.7). The rule to remember: the two things compared stand in the same case. In 31.6 hic testis and ille are both nominative. If the first term is dative, so is the second: testī alterī magis quam priōrī crēdidit (31.26). When the second term is a whole clause, it has its own verb: plūs quam dēbētur (31.4); quam ipse habēret (31.11).
4. The ablative of comparison. Instead of quam, Latin may put the second term in the ablative with no preposition: nihil lēge sānctius, “nothing more sacred than the law,” means the same as nihil sānctius quam lēx. The ablative is used only when the first term is nominative or accusative. With any other case, and whenever the second term is a clause or an infinitive, quam must be used (31.7, 31.8, 31.13).
5. Quam + superlative = “as … as possible.” Quam prīmum, “as soon as possible” (31.3, 31.29); quam celerrimē, “as quickly as possible” (31.5, 31.18). A form of possum may be added: quam celerrimē potuit, “as quickly as he could.” Do not add a Latin word for “possible.”
6. Tam … quam. Tam, “so, to such a degree,” is answered by quam, “as”: nihil tam nātūrāle est quam … (31.12), “nothing is so natural as …” When tam … quam joins two phrases of equal weight it means “both … and” or “as much … as”: tam prō dominō rēge quam prō sē ipsō (31.15).
7. Preference. Quam follows words that express choosing one thing over another. With mālō, “I prefer”: absolvere māluit quam damnāre (31.8). With potius, “rather”: potius quam, followed by a subjunctive when a verb follows, absolvit potius quam … damnāret (31.28). With satius est, “it is better”: satius est tacēre quam falsum dīcere (31.7), and the rescript of Section F. With magis, “more”: magis valeat quam pereat (31.13). In these patterns the two things weighed are usually of the same kind: two infinitives (31.7, 31.8) or two subjunctives (31.13). After potius quam, the rejected action goes into the subjunctive even when the chosen one is an indicative (31.28).
8. Prius quam and ante quam. “Before” is prius quam (or ante quam), written as one word or two. With the indicative it states a plain fact of time. With the subjunctive it adds an idea of intention or anticipation, “before he could,” “before he should”: prius quam iūdicāret (31.9), prius quam testēs audīret (31.19). Postquam, “after,” normally takes the perfect indicative.
9. Quam diū. As a question, “how long?” (31.2, 31.14). As a relative adverb, “as long as,” it introduces a clause, often with the future perfect when the main verb is future: quam diū sē bene gesserint, in officiō manēbunt (31.10).
10. Comparative + quam ut + subjunctive: “too … to.” Nox obscūrior erat quam ut quicquam certē vidēre posset (31.23), literally “the night was darker than that he could see anything clearly,” that is, “too dark for him to see anything clearly.”
11. Numbers. With numbers, “more than” and “less than” are plūs quam and minus quam, but quam is often left out without any change of case: plūs quam centum aureōs (31.17) = plūs centum aureōs.
12. The other quam. Quam is also the feminine accusative singular of the relative pronoun quī, quae, quod (Lesson 3) and of the interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod. Rēs quam ēmit, “the thing which he bought”; quam poenam meruit?, “what penalty has he deserved?” Test: if quam can be replaced by “which” and refers to a feminine noun, it is the pronoun. In 31.13, quā (dē quā) is the pronoun in the ablative; quam in the same sentence is the adverb.
The forms and patterns used in this lesson: quam with iūstus, diū, longē, multa, impudenter (“how”); plūs, dignior, satius, magis, amīcior, gravior, obscūrior, diūtius, prius (“than”); prīmum, celerrimē (“as … as possible”); tam … quam; mālle … quam; potius quam; prius quam; quam diū.
Common Mistakes
Changing the case after quam: ✗ hic testis dignior est quam illum. The second term takes the case of the first: quam ille.
Using the ablative of comparison where it is not allowed: ✗ testī alterī magis priōre crēdidit. The first term is dative, so quam is required: magis quam priōrī.
Translating “as soon as possible” word for word: ✗ tam cito quam possibile. Latin says quam prīmum, or quam celerrimē potest.
Confusing magis and plūs: magis, “more,” qualifies verbs and adjectives (magis valeat, magis crēdidit). Plūs, “more,” measures a quantity (plūs iūris, plūs quam centum). ✗ magis quam centum aureōs.
Reading every quam as “than”: in rēs quam vendidit there is no comparison. Look for a comparative before quam; if there is none, it may be the pronoun, or “how.”
Misreading qui tam: the phrase does not mean “who so.” Tam is the first half of tam … quam, “as much for the king as for himself.”
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Nemo plus iuris
Lesson 30 met the maxim nemo dat quod non habet, the medieval and modern form of the rule of title. Its Roman ancestor turns on quam: nemo plus iuris ad alium transferre potest, quam ipse haberet, “no one can transfer to another more right than he himself would have” (Ulpian, On the Edict, Book 46; Digest 50.17.54). The Digest places it among the “various rules of ancient law” (dē dīversīs rēgulīs iūris antīquī) in the last title of the last book. Justinian’s compilers lifted it from its original setting and made it a general rule. It still governs the transfer of property throughout the civil-law world and is quoted by common-law courts.
Ut res magis valeat quam pereat
The jurist Julian (Digest 34.5.12) laid down that, where the wording of an action or a defence is ambiguous, it should be read so that the matter “prevails rather than perishes” (31.13). The short form ut res magis valeat quam pereat has become a canon of construction for contracts, wills and statutes: of two readings, prefer the one that gives the words some effect. The French Code civil puts the same rule in article 1191: where a clause can bear two meanings, the one that gives it effect prevails over the one that gives it none.
Satius est … quam
The rescript of the Emperor Trajan quoted in Section F, “it is better that the crime of a guilty man go unpunished than that an innocent man be condemned,” is the Roman root of a principle of criminal justice. Blackstone’s Commentaries (Book IV, chapter 27) gave it its famous English form: “it is better that ten guilty persons escape, than that one innocent suffer.” The comparison is the whole argument, and in Latin the comparison is carried by quam.
Quamdiu se bene gesserint
English judges once held office “during the king’s pleasure,” durante bene placito, and could be dismissed at will. The Act of Settlement of 1701 provided that judges’ commissions should run quamdiu se bene gesserint, “as long as they conduct themselves well” (31.10). The formula secured the independence of the judiciary. The Constitution of the United States (Article III) translates it: federal judges “shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour.”
Qui tam
A qui tam action is one brought by a private informer who sues “as much for the king as for himself” (31.15) and shares in the penalty recovered. The name is the first two words of the Latin formula of the English writ. It is English law Latin, not Roman. The action survives above all in the United States, under the False Claims Act, where whistleblowers sue on behalf of the government.
Nihil tam naturale
Ulpian’s rule (Digest 50.17.35), “nothing is so natural as that each thing should be undone in the same way in which it was bound” (31.12), continues: “so an obligation made by words is removed by words; an obligation made by bare consent is dissolved by contrary consent.” Civil lawyers still speak of the actus contrarius and of mutuus dissensus, the agreement to undo an agreement.
Quam primum
In the Latin of the Church and of older chanceries, quam primum, “as soon as possible,” is the usual way of saying that something must be done without delay. A notary reading an old instrument will meet it often.
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The following passage comes from the Digest of Justinian (48.19.5 pr.), in the title “On Penalties” (Dē poenīs). It is taken from Ulpian’s work On the Duties of the Proconsul, Book 7, written in the early third century AD. Ulpian reports two rescripts (written answers to officials) of the Emperor Trajan (AD 98–117) on the conduct of criminal trials. The second contains the sentence that has become the classic Latin statement of the benefit of the doubt, and quam is its hinge.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Absentem an-absent-person in in crīminibus criminal-charges damnārī to-be-condemned nōn not dēbēre to-ought dīvus the-deified Trāiānus Trajan Iūliō to-Julius Frontōnī Fronto rescrīpsit wrote-in-reply
F.1b Absentem /abˈsen.tem/ absent.ACC.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL crīminibus /kriːˈmi.ni.bus/ charge.ABL.N.PL damnārī /damˈnaː.riː/ condemn.PRES.INF.PASS nōn /noːn/ not.ADV dēbēre /deːˈbeː.re/ ought.PRES.INF dīvus /ˈdiː.wus/ deified.NOM.M.SG Trāiānus /traːˈjaː.nus/ Trajan.NOM.M.SG Iūliō /ˈjuː.li.oː/ Julius.DAT.M.SG Frontōnī /fronˈtoː.niː/ Fronto.DAT.M.SG rescrīpsit /resˈkriːp.sit/ reply-in-writing.3SG.PERF
F.2a Sed but nec nor dē on suspīciōnibus suspicions dēbēre to-ought aliquem anyone damnārī to-be-condemned dīvus the-deified Trāiānus Trajan Adsidiō to-Adsidius Sevērō Severus rescrīpsit wrote-in-reply
F.2b Sed /sed/ but.CONJ nec /nek/ nor.CONJ dē /deː/ on.PREP+ABL suspīciōnibus /sus.piː.kiˈoː.ni.bus/ suspicion.ABL.F.PL dēbēre /deːˈbeː.re/ ought.PRES.INF aliquem /ˈa.li.kʷem/ someone.ACC.M.SG damnārī /damˈnaː.riː/ condemn.PRES.INF.PASS dīvus /ˈdiː.wus/ deified.NOM.M.SG Trāiānus /traːˈjaː.nus/ Trajan.NOM.M.SG Adsidiō /adˈsi.di.oː/ Adsidius.DAT.M.SG Sevērō /seˈweː.roː/ Severus.DAT.M.SG rescrīpsit /resˈkriːp.sit/ reply-in-writing.3SG.PERF
F.3a satius better enim for esse to-be impūnītum unpunished relinquī to-be-left facinus the-crime nocentis of-a-guilty-man quam than innocentem an-innocent-man damnārī to-be-condemned
F.3b satius /ˈsa.ti.us/ better.ACC.N.SG.COMP enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF impūnītum /im.puːˈniː.tum/ unpunished.ACC.N.SG relinquī /reˈliŋ.kʷiː/ leave.PRES.INF.PASS facinus /ˈfa.ki.nus/ crime.ACC.N.SG nocentis /noˈken.tis/ guilty.GEN.M.SG quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ innocentem /in.noˈken.tem/ innocent.ACC.M.SG damnārī /damˈnaː.riː/ condemn.PRES.INF.PASS
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Ulpianus libro septimo de officio proconsulis. Absentem in criminibus damnari non debere divus Traianus Iulio Frontoni rescripsit. Sed nec de suspicionibus debere aliquem damnari divus Traianus Adsidio Severo rescripsit: satius enim esse impunitum relinqui facinus nocentis quam innocentem damnari.
→ “Ulpian, On the Duties of the Proconsul, Book 7. The deified Trajan wrote in reply to Julius Fronto that a person who is absent ought not to be condemned on criminal charges. But the deified Trajan also wrote in reply to Adsidius Severus that no one ought to be condemned on suspicions either: for it is better that the crime of a guilty man should be left unpunished than that an innocent man should be condemned.”
— Ulpian, On the Duties of the Proconsul, Book 7, in Digest 48.19.5 pr.
F-C: Latin Text Only
Ulpianus libro septimo de officio proconsulis. Absentem in criminibus damnari non debere divus Traianus Iulio Frontoni rescripsit. Sed nec de suspicionibus debere aliquem damnari divus Traianus Adsidio Severo rescripsit: satius enim esse impunitum relinqui facinus nocentis quam innocentem damnari.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. The whole passage is reported speech. Each rescrīpsit, “wrote in reply,” governs an accusative and infinitive: absentem … damnārī nōn dēbēre, “that an absent person ought not to be condemned.” In the second sentence the order is reversed for emphasis: nec dē suspīciōnibus dēbēre aliquem damnārī. The last clause continues the reported speech without a new verb of saying. That is why it reads satius esse, “(that) it was better,” and not satius est. The maxim is often quoted in the direct form satius est …, but the Digest text has the infinitive.
Quam weighs two passive infinitives against each other. On one side stands impūnītum relinquī facinus nocentis, “that the crime of the guilty should be left unpunished.” On the other stands innocentem damnārī, “that the innocent should be condemned.” Each infinitive has its own subject in the accusative, facinus and innocentem, as the rule of the same case after quam requires. Satius is the comparative of satis, “enough,” and means “better, preferable.” The adjectives nocēns and innocēns, “guilty” and “innocent,” are present participles of nocēre, “to do harm,” used as nouns: “the one who harms” and “the one who does no harm.” Dīvus, “deified,” is the regular title of an emperor after his death and consecration.
Commentary. A rescript was the emperor’s written answer to a question put by an official or a private person, and it had the force of law for the point it decided. Ulpian collected such answers in his handbook for provincial governors, who tried criminal cases themselves. The two rescripts set two limits on condemnation: the accused must be present, and suspicion is not proof. The final sentence gives the reason for the second: an acquittal of the guilty is a lesser evil than the condemnation of the innocent. Modern law expresses the same idea as the presumption of innocence and the standard of proof “beyond reasonable doubt.” The spelling in F-B and F-C is standardised (v for consonantal u; capitals for proper names). Editions print the names in lower case (divus traianus iulio frontoni).
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A short narrative follows a criminal trial before a Roman judge of the imperial period, when a judgment could be appealed. The Dickinson list classes quam as an adverb, and the protocol assigns action narrative to adverbs. A trial is a story of weighing, and the narrative lets quam appear in its main uses: comparison, “how” in questions and exclamations, “as … as possible,” “before,” “rather than,” and “too … to.” The judge ends by quoting Trajan’s rescript from Section F. Titius and Seius are the stock names of the Roman jurists’ examples. The text is a pedagogical composition in juristic Latin, not a quotation.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
31.16a Rēs the-case gravior more-serious erat was quam than vulgō commonly putābātur it-was-thought
31.16b Rēs /reːs/ matter.NOM.F.SG gravior /ˈɡra.wi.or/ serious.NOM.F.SG.COMP erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ vulgō /ˈwul.ɡoː/ commonly.ADV putābātur /pu.taːˈbaː.tur/ think.3SG.IMPERF.PASS
31.17a Seius Seius accūsābātur was-accused quod because Titiō from-Titius plūs more quam than centum a-hundred aureōs gold-pieces surripuisset he-had-stolen
31.17b Seius /ˈsej.jus/ Seius.NOM.M.SG accūsābātur /ak.kuː.saːˈbaː.tur/ accuse.3SG.IMPERF.PASS quod /kʷod/ because.CONJ Titiō /ˈti.ti.oː/ Titius.DAT.M.SG plūs /pluːs/ more.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ centum /ˈken.tum/ hundred.NUM aureōs /ˈau̯.re.oːs/ gold-piece.ACC.M.PL surripuisset /sur.ri.puˈis.set/ steal.3SG.PLUPERF.SUBJ
31.18a Accūsātor the-accuser eum him quam as celerrimē most-quickly damnārī to-be-condemned voluit wanted
31.18b Accūsātor /ak.kuːˈsaː.tor/ accuser.NOM.M.SG eum /ˈe.um/ he.ACC.M.SG quam /kʷam/ as.ADV celerrimē /keˈler.ri.meː/ quickly.ADV.SUPERL damnārī /damˈnaː.riː/ condemn.PRES.INF.PASS voluit /ˈwo.lu.it/ want.3SG.PERF
31.19a Iūdex the-judge autem however nihil nothing dēcernere to-decide voluit wished prius earlier quam than testēs the-witnesses audīret he-should-hear
31.19b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG autem /ˈau̯.tem/ however.CONJ nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG dēcernere /deːˈker.ne.re/ decide.PRES.INF voluit /ˈwo.lu.it/ want.3SG.PERF prius /ˈpri.us/ earlier.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.ACC.M.PL audīret /au̯ˈdiː.ret/ hear.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
31.20a Prīmus the-first testis witness quī who Titiō to-Titius amīcior more-friendly erat was quam than Seiō to-Seius omnia everything sē himself vīdisse to-have-seen affirmāvit declared
31.20b Prīmus /ˈpriː.mus/ first.NOM.M.SG testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG Titiō /ˈti.ti.oː/ Titius.DAT.M.SG amīcior /aˈmiː.ki.or/ friendly.NOM.M.SG.COMP erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ Seiō /ˈsej.joː/ Seius.DAT.M.SG omnia /ˈom.ni.a/ all.ACC.N.PL sē /seː/ self.ACC.M.SG vīdisse /wiːˈdis.se/ see.PERF.INF affirmāvit /af.firˈmaː.wit/ declare.3SG.PERF
31.21a Quam how multa many-things vīdistī did-you-see inquit said iūdex the-judge et and quam how longē far aberās were-you-away
31.21b Quam /kʷam/ how.ADV multa /ˈmul.ta/ many.ACC.N.PL vīdistī /wiːˈdis.tiː/ see.2SG.PERF inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG et /et/ and.CONJ quam /kʷam/ how.ADV longē /ˈlon.ɡeː/ far.ADV aberās /ˈa.be.raːs/ be-away.2SG.IMPERF
31.22a Nōn not plūs more quam than vīgintī twenty passūs paces aberam I-was-away respondit answered testis the-witness
31.22b Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV plūs /pluːs/ more.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ vīgintī /wiːˈɡin.tiː/ twenty.NUM passūs /ˈpas.suːs/ pace.ACC.M.PL aberam /ˈa.be.ram/ be-away.1SG.IMPERF respondit /resˈpon.dit/ answer.3SG.PERF testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG
31.23a Sed but nox the-night obscūrior darker erat was quam than ut that quicquam anything certē clearly vidēre to-see posset he-could
31.23b Sed /sed/ but.CONJ nox /noks/ night.NOM.F.SG obscūrior /obsˈkuː.ri.or/ dark.NOM.F.SG.COMP erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ ut /ut/ that.CONJ quicquam /ˈkʷik.kʷam/ anything.ACC.N.SG certē /ˈker.teː/ clearly.ADV vidēre /wiˈdeː.re/ see.PRES.INF posset /ˈpos.set/ be-able.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
31.24a Alter the-second testis witness homō a-man gravior more-reliable quam than prior the-first Seium Seius eā on-that nocte night domī at-home fuisse to-have-been dīxit said
31.24b Alter /ˈal.ter/ second.NOM.M.SG testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG homō /ˈho.moː/ man.NOM.M.SG gravior /ˈɡra.wi.or/ weighty.NOM.M.SG.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ prior /ˈpri.or/ former.NOM.M.SG Seium /ˈsej.jum/ Seius.ACC.M.SG eā /ˈe.aː/ that.ABL.F.SG nocte /ˈnok.te/ night.ABL.F.SG domī /ˈdo.miː/ home.LOC.F.SG fuisse /fuˈis.se/ be.PERF.INF dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
31.25a Accūsātor the-accuser clāmāvit shouted Quam how impudenter shamelessly mentītur he-lies
31.25b Accūsātor /ak.kuːˈsaː.tor/ accuser.NOM.M.SG clāmāvit /klaːˈmaː.wit/ shout.3SG.PERF Quam /kʷam/ how.ADV impudenter /im.puˈden.ter/ shamelessly.ADV mentītur /menˈtiː.tur/ lie.3SG.PRES.DEP
31.26a Iūdex the-judge tamen however testī the-witness alterī second magis more quam than priōrī the-first crēdidit believed
31.26b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG tamen /ˈta.men/ however.ADV testī /ˈtes.tiː/ witness.DAT.M.SG alterī /ˈal.te.riː/ second.DAT.M.SG magis /ˈma.ɡis/ more.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ priōrī /priˈoː.riː/ former.DAT.M.SG crēdidit /ˈkreː.di.dit/ believe.3SG.PERF
31.27a Satius better est it-is inquit he-said impūnītum unpunished relinquī to-be-left facinus the-crime nocentis of-the-guilty quam than innocentem an-innocent-man damnārī to-be-condemned
31.27b Satius /ˈsa.ti.us/ better.NOM.N.SG.COMP est /est/ be.3SG.PRES inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES impūnītum /im.puːˈniː.tum/ unpunished.ACC.N.SG relinquī /reˈliŋ.kʷiː/ leave.PRES.INF.PASS facinus /ˈfa.ki.nus/ crime.ACC.N.SG nocentis /noˈken.tis/ guilty.GEN.M.SG quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ innocentem /in.noˈken.tem/ innocent.ACC.M.SG damnārī /damˈnaː.riː/ condemn.PRES.INF.PASS
31.28a Itaque and-so Seium Seius absolvit he-acquitted potius rather quam than dubiīs on-doubtful indiciīs evidence damnāret he-should-condemn
31.28b Itaque /ˈi.ta.kʷe/ therefore.ADV Seium /ˈsej.jum/ Seius.ACC.M.SG absolvit /abˈsol.wit/ acquit.3SG.PERF potius /ˈpo.ti.us/ rather.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ dubiīs /ˈdu.bi.iːs/ doubtful.ABL.N.PL indiciīs /inˈdi.ki.iːs/ evidence.ABL.N.PL damnāret /damˈnaː.ret/ condemn.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
31.29a Titius Titius quam as prīmum first appellāvit appealed
31.29b Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG quam /kʷam/ as.ADV prīmum /ˈpriː.mum/ first.ADV.SUPERL appellāvit /ap.pelˈlaː.wit/ appeal.3SG.PERF
31.30a Appellātiō the-appeal tamen however nōn not diūtius longer quam than trēs three mēnsēs months dūrāvit lasted et and sententia the-judgment cōnfirmāta confirmed est was
31.30b Appellātiō /ap.pelˈlaː.ti.oː/ appeal.NOM.F.SG tamen /ˈta.men/ however.ADV nōn /noːn/ not.ADV diūtius /diˈuː.ti.us/ long.ADV.COMP quam /kʷam/ than.CONJ trēs /treːs/ three.ACC.M.PL mēnsēs /ˈmeːn.seːs/ month.ACC.M.PL dūrāvit /duːˈraː.wit/ last.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ sententia /senˈten.ti.a/ judgment.NOM.F.SG cōnfirmāta /koːn.firˈmaː.ta/ confirm.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
Part B: Natural Sentences
31.16 Rēs gravior erat quam vulgō putābātur. → “The case was more serious than was commonly thought.”
31.17 Seius accūsābātur quod Titiō plūs quam centum aureōs surripuisset. → “Seius was accused of having stolen more than a hundred gold pieces from Titius.”
31.18 Accūsātor eum quam celerrimē damnārī voluit. → “The accuser wanted him condemned as quickly as possible.”
31.19 Iūdex autem nihil dēcernere voluit prius quam testēs audīret. → “But the judge would decide nothing before he had heard the witnesses.”
31.20 Prīmus testis, quī Titiō amīcior erat quam Seiō, omnia sē vīdisse affirmāvit. → “The first witness, who was a closer friend of Titius than of Seius, declared that he had seen everything.”
31.21 “Quam multa vīdistī?” inquit iūdex, “et quam longē aberās?” → “‘How much did you see?’ said the judge. ‘And how far away were you?’”
31.22 “Nōn plūs quam vīgintī passūs aberam,” respondit testis. → “‘I was no more than twenty paces away,’ the witness answered.”
31.23 Sed nox obscūrior erat quam ut quicquam certē vidēre posset. → “But the night was too dark for him to see anything clearly.”
31.24 Alter testis, homō gravior quam prior, Seium eā nocte domī fuisse dīxit. → “The second witness, a more reliable man than the first, said that Seius had been at home that night.”
31.25 Accūsātor clāmāvit: “Quam impudenter mentītur!” → “The accuser shouted: ‘How shamelessly he lies!’”
31.26 Iūdex tamen testī alterī magis quam priōrī crēdidit. → “The judge, however, believed the second witness more than the first.”
31.27 “Satius est,” inquit, “impūnītum relinquī facinus nocentis quam innocentem damnārī.” → “‘It is better,’ he said, ‘that the crime of the guilty go unpunished than that an innocent man be condemned.’”
31.28 Itaque Seium absolvit potius quam dubiīs indiciīs damnāret. → “And so he acquitted Seius rather than condemn him on doubtful evidence.”
31.29 Titius quam prīmum appellāvit. → “Titius appealed at the first opportunity.”
31.30 Appellātiō tamen nōn diūtius quam trēs mēnsēs dūrāvit, et sententia cōnfirmāta est. → “The appeal, however, lasted no longer than three months, and the judgment was upheld.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
31.16 Rēs gravior erat quam vulgō putābātur.
31.17 Seius accūsābātur quod Titiō plūs quam centum aureōs surripuisset.
31.18 Accūsātor eum quam celerrimē damnārī voluit.
31.19 Iūdex autem nihil dēcernere voluit prius quam testēs audīret.
31.20 Prīmus testis, quī Titiō amīcior erat quam Seiō, omnia sē vīdisse affirmāvit.
31.21 “Quam multa vīdistī?” inquit iūdex, “et quam longē aberās?”
31.22 “Nōn plūs quam vīgintī passūs aberam,” respondit testis.
31.23 Sed nox obscūrior erat quam ut quicquam certē vidēre posset.
31.24 Alter testis, homō gravior quam prior, Seium eā nocte domī fuisse dīxit.
31.25 Accūsātor clāmāvit: “Quam impudenter mentītur!”
31.26 Iūdex tamen testī alterī magis quam priōrī crēdidit.
31.27 “Satius est,” inquit, “impūnītum relinquī facinus nocentis quam innocentem damnārī.”
31.28 Itaque Seium absolvit potius quam dubiīs indiciīs damnāret.
31.29 Titius quam prīmum appellāvit.
31.30 Appellātiō tamen nōn diūtius quam trēs mēnsēs dūrāvit, et sententia cōnfirmāta est.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The narrative shows quam in each of its main uses. “Than” after a comparative: gravior … quam (31.16, 31.24), plūs quam (31.17, 31.22), amīcior … quam (31.20), obscūrior … quam (31.23), magis quam (31.26), satius … quam (31.27), diūtius quam (31.30). “How” in a question or exclamation: quam multa?, quam longē? (31.21), quam impudenter! (31.25). “As … as possible”: quam celerrimē (31.18), quam prīmum (31.29). “Before”: prius quam (31.19). “Rather than”: potius quam (31.28).
The same case on both sides of quam: Titiō … quam Seiō, both dative after amīcior (31.20); testī alterī … quam priōrī, both dative after crēdidit (31.26); homō gravior quam prior, both nominative (31.24). In 31.17 and 31.22 the numbers follow plūs quam without any change of case: centum aureōs and vīgintī passūs are the accusatives they would be without plūs quam. In 31.30 trēs mēnsēs is an accusative of duration, “for three months,” and stays accusative after diūtius quam.
Subjunctives after quam: prius quam testēs audīret (31.19) is subjunctive because the judge intended to hear the witnesses first; potius quam … damnāret (31.28) is subjunctive because the rejected alternative is a thing that might have been done; quam ut … posset (31.23) is the “too … to” construction.
Other points. Quod … surripuisset (31.17) is subjunctive because it gives the charge as alleged by the accuser, not as a fact vouched for by the narrator. Surripere takes a dative of the person robbed: Titiō surripere, “to steal from Titius.” Crēdere takes a dative of the person believed (31.26). Domī (31.24) is a locative, “at home.” In 31.27 the judge quotes Trajan’s rescript (Section F) in direct speech, so the verb is satius est, not satius esse. Appellāre (31.29) in legal Latin means “to appeal” to a higher judge; appellātiō is “the appeal.” Indicium (31.28) is a piece of evidence or a sign pointing to guilt.
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Qu is one consonant: quam /kʷam/, quī /kʷiː/, quod /kʷod/, quotiēns /ˈkʷo.ti.eːns/. It never makes a syllable of its own, so quam is one syllable and quicquam two (/ˈkʷik.kʷam/).
The a of quam and tam is short. Do not lengthen it under the influence of English “qualm.”
Quicquam and quidquam: both spellings are found in classical texts. Quidquam is the etymological spelling (quid + quam); in quicquam the d has been assimilated to the following c. They are the same word.
Written as one word or two: quamdiū / quam diū, priusquam / prius quam, antequam / ante quam, quamobrem / quam ob rem. Classical texts often separate the parts, and a word can even stand between them (prius … quam). This course writes them apart in the examples so that the learner can see quam at work, and together in the English text for the fixed legal phrases (quamdiu se bene gesserint).
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all legal citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions and law reports. Legal phrases in running English text (nemo plus iuris, qui tam) are likewise printed without macrons.
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūdex, vīdisse). Many editions print i and u throughout (iudex, uidisse). Trāiānus has a consonantal i between vowels: /traːˈjaː.nus/.
Nocēns and innocēns: nocentis /noˈken.tis/, innocentem /in.noˈken.tem/. The c is always /k/, never /s/ as in English “innocent.”
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³¹ ◊quam ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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