← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³² ◊ᵖᵉʳ
Welcome to Lesson 32 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the preposition per, “through.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 30th among all Latin words. Lawyers use it every day, often without noticing that it is Latin: per se, per curiam, per incuriam, per capita, per stirpes, per procurationem (the “p.p.” above a signature), and the maxim of agency, qui facit per alium facit per se.
What does per mean in legal Latin?
Per always takes the accusative. Its first meaning is spatial: “through, across, all over”: per forum, “through the forum”; per tōtam prōvinciam, “throughout the whole province.” From space it passes to time: per decem annōs, “for ten years, throughout ten years.” From there it comes to mean the way by which something is done. It can be a person: per prōcūrātōrem, “through an agent.” It can be a means: per litterās, “by letter.” It can be a manner: per vim, “by force”; per fraudem, “by fraud.” It can be a cause: per aetātem, “because of age.” In oaths and entreaties it means “by”: per deōs, “by the gods.” And in the idiom per mē licet it means “as far as I am concerned.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English “through” covers space and means but rarely a person. Latin per is the normal word for acting through another person, and this is the legal heart of the lesson. Latin has three ways of saying “by” in a sentence about doing something. The personal agent of a passive verb takes ā or ab with the ablative: ā iūdice damnātus, “condemned by the judge.” The tool or instrument takes the plain ablative: gladiō, “with a sword.” The intermediary, the person through whom the act is done, takes per with the accusative: per servum, “through a slave”; per prōcūrātōrem, “through an agent.” Roman law built its rules of agency and acquisition on that distinction.
Etymology: per goes back to an Indo-European root meaning “forward, through, beyond,” which also gives Greek περί, “around,” and the German prefix ver-. As a prefix, per- means “through, to the end” (perficere, “to carry through, complete”; perpetuus, “continuing throughout”). With adjectives it means “very” (permagnus, “very great”; perdifficilis, “very difficult”). In a few words it has a bad sense, “away from what is right”: periūrium, “perjury, false oath,” and perfidia, “breach of faith.”
Key Takeaways
⚖ Per always governs the accusative: per prōcūrātōrem, per litterās, per tōtam noctem
⚖ Per marks the intermediary: the person through whom an act is done (per servum, per alium)
⚖ Do not confuse per + accusative (intermediary), ā/ab + ablative (agent of a passive verb) and the plain ablative (instrument)
⚖ Per expresses duration (per decem annōs), means and manner (per vim, per fraudem), cause (per aetātem) and oaths (per deōs)
⚖ Per capita and the distributive per annum are later Latin; the Roman lawyers wrote in capita and in stirpes
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per /per/: one syllable, short e as in English “pet,” and a tapped or trilled r. Say “pair” with a short vowel, never “pur” as in English “per cent.”
In phrases, per is unstressed and leans on the next word: per vim /per ˈwim/, per servum /per ˈser.wum/.
Compounds keep their own Latin stress: perficere /perˈfi.ke.re/, perpetuus /perˈpe.tu.us/, periūrium /perˈjuː.ri.um/ (the i after per- is a consonant, so the word has four syllables).
prōcūrātor /proː.kuːˈraː.tor/: three long vowels in a row; the stress falls on the long penult rā.
Legal English pronunciations vary (“per kyoo-ree-am,” “per stir-peez”). This course gives the restored classical pronunciation, in which c is always /k/ and v is /w/: per cūriam /per ˈkuː.ri.am/, per stirpēs /per ˈstir.peːs/.
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32.1a Per through prōcūrātōrem an-agent agit he-acts
32.1b Per /per/ through.PREP+ACC prōcūrātōrem /proː.kuː.raːˈtoː.rem/ agent.ACC.M.SG agit /ˈa.ɡit/ act.3SG.PRES
32.2a Per by litterās letter respondit he-replied
32.2b Per /per/ by.PREP+ACC litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL respondit /resˈpon.dit/ reply.3SG.PERF
32.3a Per by vim force intrāvit he-entered
32.3b Per /per/ by.PREP+ACC vim /wim/ force.ACC.F.SG intrāvit /inˈtraː.wit/ enter.3SG.PERF
32.4a Per throughout decem ten annōs years possēdit he-possessed
32.4b Per /per/ throughout.PREP+ACC decem /ˈde.kem/ ten.NUM annōs /ˈan.noːs/ year.ACC.M.PL possēdit /posˈseː.dit/ possess.3SG.PERF
32.5a Per by deōs the-gods iūrāvit he-swore
32.5b Per /per/ by.PREP+ACC deōs /ˈde.oːs/ god.ACC.M.PL iūrāvit /juːˈraː.wit/ swear.3SG.PERF
32.6a Possessiō possession nōbīs for-us per through servum slave nostrum our adquīritur is-acquired
32.6b Possessiō /posˈses.si.oː/ possession.NOM.F.SG nōbīs /ˈnoː.biːs/ we.DAT.PL per /per/ through.PREP+ACC servum /ˈser.wum/ slave.ACC.M.SG nostrum /ˈnos.trum/ our.ACC.M.SG adquīritur /adˈkʷiː.ri.tur/ acquire.3SG.PRES.PASS
32.7a Hērēs the-heir per by fraudem fraud exclūsus shut-out est was
32.7b Hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG per /per/ by.PREP+ACC fraudem /ˈfrau̯.dem/ fraud.ACC.F.SG exclūsus /eksˈkluː.sus/ exclude.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
32.8a Per through mē me licet it-is-allowed testem the-witness iterum again interrogā question
32.8b Per /per/ through.PREP+ACC mē /meː/ I.ACC.SG licet /ˈli.ket/ be-allowed.3SG.PRES.IMPERS testem /ˈtes.tem/ witness.ACC.M.SG iterum /ˈi.te.rum/ again.ADV interrogā /inˈter.ro.ɡaː/ question.2SG.PRES.IMPER
32.9a Prōcōnsul the-proconsul per throughout tōtam the-whole prōvinciam province iūs law dīxit pronounced
32.9b Prōcōnsul /proːˈkoːn.sul/ proconsul.NOM.M.SG per /per/ throughout.PREP+ACC tōtam /ˈtoː.tam/ whole.ACC.F.SG prōvinciam /proːˈwin.ki.am/ province.ACC.F.SG iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
32.10a Puer the-boy per because-of aetātem age testimōnium testimony dīcere to-give nōn not potest is-able
32.10b Puer /ˈpu.er/ boy.NOM.M.SG per /per/ because-of.PREP+ACC aetātem /ai̯ˈtaː.tem/ age.ACC.F.SG testimōnium /tes.tiˈmoː.ni.um/ testimony.ACC.N.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES
32.11a Per through prōcūrātōrem an-agent tūtōrem a-guardian cūrātōremve or-a-curator possessiō possession nōbīs for-us adquīritur is-acquired
32.11b Per /per/ through.PREP+ACC prōcūrātōrem /proː.kuː.raːˈtoː.rem/ agent.ACC.M.SG tūtōrem /tuːˈtoː.rem/ guardian.ACC.M.SG cūrātōremve /kuː.raː.toːˈrem.we/ curator.ACC.M.SG-or possessiō /posˈses.si.oː/ possession.NOM.F.SG nōbīs /ˈnoː.biːs/ we.DAT.PL adquīritur /adˈkʷiː.ri.tur/ acquire.3SG.PRES.PASS
32.12a Potest is-able quis someone per through alium another quod what potest he-is-able facere to-do per through sē himself ipsum himself
32.12b Potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES quis /kʷis/ someone.NOM.M.SG per /per/ through.PREP+ACC alium /ˈa.li.um/ other.ACC.M.SG quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF per /per/ through.PREP+ACC sē /seː/ self.ACC.M.SG ipsum /ˈip.sum/ self.ACC.M.SG
32.13a Quī who facit acts per through alium another est is perinde just-the-same ac as sī if faciat he-should-act per through sē himself ipsum himself
32.13b Quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES per /per/ through.PREP+ACC alium /ˈa.li.um/ other.ACC.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES perinde /peˈrin.de/ equally.ADV ac /ak/ as.CONJ sī /siː/ if.CONJ faciat /ˈfa.ki.at/ do.3SG.PRES.SUBJ per /per/ through.PREP+ACC sē /seː/ self.ACC.M.SG ipsum /ˈip.sum/ self.ACC.M.SG
32.14a Hoc this est is quod what vulgō commonly dīcitur is-said per through extrāneam an-outside persōnam person nōbīs for-us adquīrī to-be-acquired nōn not posse to-be-able
32.14b Hoc /hok/ this.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.NOM.N.SG vulgō /ˈwul.ɡoː/ commonly.ADV dīcitur /ˈdiː.ki.tur/ say.3SG.PRES.PASS per /per/ through.PREP+ACC extrāneam /eksˈtraː.ne.am/ outside.ACC.F.SG persōnam /perˈsoː.nam/ person.ACC.F.SG nōbīs /ˈnoː.biːs/ we.DAT.PL adquīrī /adˈkʷiː.riː/ acquire.PRES.INF.PASS nōn /noːn/ not.ADV posse /ˈpos.se/ be-able.PRES.INF
32.15a Per through līberam a-free persōnam person velutī for-instance per through prōcūrātōrem an-agent placet it-is-settled nōn not sōlum only scientibus to-knowing sed but etiam also ignōrantibus to-unknowing vōbīs for-you adquīrī to-be-acquired possessiōnem possession
32.15b Per /per/ through.PREP+ACC līberam /ˈliː.be.ram/ free.ACC.F.SG persōnam /perˈsoː.nam/ person.ACC.F.SG velutī /ˈwe.lu.tiː/ for-instance.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC prōcūrātōrem /proː.kuː.raːˈtoː.rem/ agent.ACC.M.SG placet /ˈpla.ket/ please.3SG.PRES.IMPERS nōn /noːn/ not.ADV sōlum /ˈsoː.lum/ only.ADV scientibus /skiˈen.ti.bus/ know.PRES.PART.DAT.M.PL sed /sed/ but.CONJ etiam /ˈe.ti.am/ also.ADV ignōrantibus /iɡ.noːˈran.ti.bus/ not-know.PRES.PART.DAT.M.PL vōbīs /ˈwoː.biːs/ you.DAT.PL adquīrī /adˈkʷiː.riː/ acquire.PRES.INF.PASS possessiōnem /pos.ses.siˈoː.nem/ possession.ACC.F.SG
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32.1 Per prōcūrātōrem agit. → “He acts through an agent.”
32.2 Per litterās respondit. → “He replied by letter.”
32.3 Per vim intrāvit. → “He entered by force.”
32.4 Per decem annōs possēdit. → “He possessed it for ten years.”
32.5 Per deōs iūrāvit. → “He swore by the gods.”
32.6 Possessiō nōbīs per servum nostrum adquīritur. → “Possession is acquired for us through our slave.” (a pedagogical sentence on the doctrine of Gaius, Institutes 2.86–89)
32.7 Hērēs per fraudem exclūsus est. → “The heir was shut out by fraud.”
32.8 Per mē licet: testem iterum interrogā. → “I have no objection: question the witness again.”
32.9 Prōcōnsul per tōtam prōvinciam iūs dīxit. → “The proconsul administered justice throughout the whole province.”
32.10 Puer per aetātem testimōnium dīcere nōn potest. → “Because of his age the boy cannot give evidence.”
32.11 Per prōcūrātōrem, tūtōrem, cūrātōremve possessiō nōbīs adquīritur. → “Possession is acquired for us through an agent, a guardian or a curator.” (Paul, On the Edict, Book 54, Digest 41.2.1.20)
32.12 Potest quis per alium, quod potest facere per sē ipsum. → “A person may do through another what he may do by himself.” (Liber Sextus, Rule of Law 68)
32.13 Quī facit per alium, est perinde ac sī faciat per sē ipsum. → “One who acts through another is in the same position as if he acted himself.” (Liber Sextus, Rule of Law 72)
32.14 Hoc est quod vulgō dīcitur, per extrāneam persōnam nōbīs adquīrī nōn posse. → “This is what is commonly said: nothing can be acquired for us through an outside person.” (Gaius, Institutes 2.95)
32.15 Per līberam persōnam, velutī per prōcūrātōrem, placet nōn sōlum scientibus, sed etiam ignōrantibus vōbīs adquīrī possessiōnem. → “It is settled that possession can be acquired for you through a free person, for instance through an agent, not only when you know of it but even when you do not.” (Justinian, Institutes 2.9.5; the opening words excepto eo quod, “except that,” are omitted)
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32.1 Per prōcūrātōrem agit.
32.2 Per litterās respondit.
32.3 Per vim intrāvit.
32.4 Per decem annōs possēdit.
32.5 Per deōs iūrāvit.
32.6 Possessiō nōbīs per servum nostrum adquīritur.
32.7 Hērēs per fraudem exclūsus est.
32.8 Per mē licet: testem iterum interrogā.
32.9 Prōcōnsul per tōtam prōvinciam iūs dīxit.
32.10 Puer per aetātem testimōnium dīcere nōn potest.
32.11 Per prōcūrātōrem, tūtōrem, cūrātōremve possessiō nōbīs adquīritur.
32.12 Potest quis per alium, quod potest facere per sē ipsum.
32.13 Quī facit per alium, est perinde ac sī faciat per sē ipsum.
32.14 Hoc est quod vulgō dīcitur, per extrāneam persōnam nōbīs adquīrī nōn posse.
32.15 Per līberam persōnam, velutī per prōcūrātōrem, placet nōn sōlum scientibus, sed etiam ignōrantibus vōbīs adquīrī possessiōnem.
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These are the grammar rules for per in Latin:
1. Form and case. Per never changes its form, and it always governs the accusative: per vim, per litterās, per prōcūrātōrem, per sē. There is no per with the ablative. In the glosses of this lesson it is marked through.PREP+ACC, throughout.PREP+ACC for time, along.PREP+ACC for a route (32.30), by.PREP+ACC for means, manner and oaths, and because-of.PREP+ACC for cause.
2. Space: “through, across, all over.” Per forum, “through the forum”; per tōtam prōvinciam, “throughout the whole province” (32.9); per Viam Appiam, “along the Appian Way” (32.30).
3. Time: “throughout, for the whole of.” Per decem annōs, “for ten years” (32.4); per hiemem, “all through the winter” (32.16); per biennium, “for two years” (32.23). The plain accusative of duration (decem annōs) means much the same. Per stresses that the time runs without a break from beginning to end.
4. The intermediary: “through (a person).” This is the legal use. Per servum (32.6), per prōcūrātōrem (32.1, 32.11, 32.15), per alium (32.12, 32.13), per eum (32.19, 32.28), per argentārium (32.24). The person named after per is the channel through which the act passes. Contrast three constructions. Ā iūdice damnātus est, “he was condemned by the judge” (ā/ab + ablative: the agent of a passive verb). Gladiō occīsus est, “he was killed with a sword” (plain ablative: the instrument). Per servum adquīritur, “it is acquired through a slave” (per + accusative: the intermediary).
5. Means and manner: “by, by means of.” Per litterās, “by letter” (32.2, 32.27); per vim, “by force” (32.3); per fraudem, “by fraud” (32.7, 32.25); per trāditiōnem, “by delivery” (32.18, 32.20); per ūsūcapiōnem, “by usucapion” (32.21). The plain ablative is often possible instead (vī, fraude, litterīs). Per puts more weight on the way or route.
6. Cause: “because of, owing to.” Per aetātem, “because of age” (32.10); per valētūdinem, “because of ill health.” This use usually comes with a verb of being able or unable: per aetātem nōn potest.
7. Oaths and entreaties: “by.” Per deōs iūrāvit (32.5); per deōs immortālēs! (32.26). The thing sworn by stands in the accusative after per.
8. Per mē licet. Literally “through me it is allowed,” that is, “I have no objection, as far as I am concerned” (32.8). Per tē licet and per eum licet are also found.
9. Per sē. With the reflexive, per sē means “by oneself, in person” (32.12, 32.13). It also means “in itself, of its own nature,” the sense of the English legal phrase per se. Per sē ipsum adds emphasis: “by himself in person.” In 32.12 and 32.13 the rules set per alium against per sē ipsum: acting through another against acting oneself.
10. Order. Per normally stands directly before its noun: per prōcūrātōrem. An adjective may come between them in the usual way (per tōtam prōvinciam, per hās litterās).
11. The prefix per-. In compounds per- means “through, to the end” (perficere, pervenīre, 32.30 perveniet, “will get through to, will reach”). With adjectives it means “very” (permagnus, perdifficilis). In periūrium and perfidia it means “wrongly, against.”
12. Later Latin: per in counting. Classical per annum means “through the year, for a year.” The distributive sense, “each year, a year,” as in “£500 per annum,” and per capita, “for each head,” belong mainly to later and legal Latin. Classical authors said quotannīs or in singulōs annōs, and the Roman lawyers said in capita and in stirpes (Institutes 3.1.6). The modern phrases are good law Latin, but they are not Roman.
The forms and patterns used in this lesson: per + prōcūrātōrem, litterās, vim, annōs, deōs, servum, fraudem, mē, prōvinciam, aetātem, alium, sē ipsum, persōnam, hiemem, trāditiōnem, eum, eandem trāditiōnem, ūsūcapiōnem, quot annōs, biennium, argentārium, hās litterās, tabellārium, Viam Appiam; and in Section F, per nōsmet ipsōs, per eōs, per hominēs.
Common Mistakes
Using the ablative after per: ✗ per vī, ✗ per prōcūrātōre. Per always takes the accusative: per vim, per prōcūrātōrem.
Using per for the agent of a passive verb: ✗ damnātus est per iūdicem when the judge himself condemned. Use ā iūdice. Per iūdicem would mean that the judge was only the channel for someone else’s act.
Using per for an instrument held in the hand: ✗ per gladium occīsus. Say gladiō occīsus.
Pronouncing per as English “per cent” (“pur”). The Latin vowel is a short e: /per/.
Treating per annum as classical Latin for “yearly.” In a Roman text per annum means “throughout the year.” Read the context.
Confusing per with prō: prō + ablative means “for, on behalf of” (prō dominō rēge, Lesson 31). Per + accusative means “through.” The principal acts per alium; the agent acts prō aliō, on another’s behalf.
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Per extraneam personam
Roman law began with a strict rule: nothing could be acquired for you through an outside person. In Gaius’s words, hoc est quod vulgo dicitur, per extraneam personam nobis adquiri non posse (Institutes 2.95; 32.14). A Roman acquired through himself and through those in his power, his children and slaves (Section F), but not through a free stranger. The one question Gaius leaves open is possession: tantum de possessione quaeritur, an per liberam personam nobis adquiratur, “only about possession is it asked whether it is acquired for us through a free person.”
Per procuratorem
The question was settled in favour of acquisition. Paul writes per procuratorem tutorem curatoremve possessio nobis adquiritur (Digest 41.2.1.20; 32.11), and Justinian’s Institutes, citing a constitution of the Emperor Severus, allow possession to be acquired through a free person, “for instance through an agent,” even without the principal’s knowledge (Institutes 2.9.5; 32.15). The same passage adds that ownership follows if the person who delivered the thing was its owner, and otherwise through usucapion. Contracts were another matter: in classical law a contract made by an agent bound the agent, not the principal, and the principal could be reached only by special actions. Direct representation in contract is a creation of later law.
Qui facit per alium facit per se
The medieval canonists put the idea into two rules among the eighty-eight regulae iuris that close the Liber Sextus of Pope Boniface VIII (1298). Rule 68: potest quis per alium, quod potest facere per se ipsum (32.12). Rule 72: qui facit per alium, est perinde, ac si faciat per se ipsum (32.13). The short form qui facit per alium facit per se is the common-law maxim of agency and of vicarious liability: the principal answers for what is done through the agent. Its partner is the maxim respondeat superior. Its limit is the act that is personal by nature, such as making a will or giving evidence, which no one can perform per alium.
Per procurationem
A letter signed “p.p.” (per procurationem, “through the agency”) is signed by one person on behalf of another who has given authority.
Per curiam and per incuriam
A per curiam decision is one given “by the court” as a body, without the name of a single judge as its author; the form is familiar in the Supreme Court of the United States. Per incuriam, “through lack of care,” is a decision made in ignorance of a binding statute or authority. In English law, since Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co (1944), the Court of Appeal need not follow one of its own earlier decisions that was given per incuriam.
Per capita and per stirpes
In the law of succession, property divided per capita is shared equally “by heads” among all the takers. Property divided per stirpes is shared “by stocks” or branches, the children of a dead heir taking his share between them. Justinian’s Institutes (3.1.6) give the Roman form of the rule: grandchildren take their parent’s place, and the inheritance is divided non in capita, sed in stirpes, “not by heads, but by stocks.” The Romans used in; per is the later legal usage.
Per se
A thing illegal per se is unlawful “in itself,” whatever the circumstances or the intention: so negligence per se in American tort law, and defamation actionable per se, without proof of special damage.
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The following passage comes from the Institutes of Gaius (2.86), the only classical Roman law textbook that survives almost complete. It was written about AD 161 and recovered in 1816 from a palimpsest in the Chapter Library of Verona. Having dealt with things acquired by ourselves, Gaius turns to things acquired through other people. Per opens each of his three groups of intermediaries.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Adquīritur it-is-acquired autem moreover nōbīs for-us nōn not sōlum only per through nōsmet ourselves ipsōs ourselves sed but etiam also per through eōs those quōs whom in in potestāte power manū hand mancipiōve or-bondage habēmus we-have
F.1b Adquīritur /adˈkʷiː.ri.tur/ acquire.3SG.PRES.PASS autem /ˈau̯.tem/ moreover.CONJ nōbīs /ˈnoː.biːs/ we.DAT.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV sōlum /ˈsoː.lum/ only.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC nōsmet /ˈnoːs.met/ we.ACC.PL.EMPH ipsōs /ˈip.soːs/ self.ACC.M.PL sed /sed/ but.CONJ etiam /ˈe.ti.am/ also.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC eōs /ˈe.oːs/ that.ACC.M.PL quōs /kʷoːs/ who.ACC.M.PL in /in/ in.PREP+ABL potestāte /po.tesˈtaː.te/ power.ABL.F.SG manū /ˈma.nuː/ hand.ABL.F.SG mancipiōve /man.ki.piˈoː.we/ bondage.ABL.N.SG-or habēmus /haˈbeː.mus/ have.1PL.PRES
F.2a item likewise per through eōs those servōs slaves in in quibus whom ūsumfrūctum usufruct habēmus we-have
F.2b item /ˈi.tem/ likewise.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC eōs /ˈe.oːs/ that.ACC.M.PL servōs /ˈser.woːs/ slave.ACC.M.PL in /in/ in.PREP+ABL quibus /ˈkʷi.bus/ who.ABL.M.PL ūsumfrūctum /uː.sumˈfruːk.tum/ usufruct.ACC.M.SG habēmus /haˈbeː.mus/ have.1PL.PRES
F.3a item likewise per through hominēs men līberōs free et and servōs slaves aliēnōs belonging-to-others quōs whom bonā in-good fidē faith possidēmus we-possess dē about quibus which singulīs one-by-one dīligenter carefully dispiciāmus let-us-examine
F.3b item /ˈi.tem/ likewise.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC hominēs /ˈho.mi.neːs/ man.ACC.M.PL līberōs /ˈliː.be.roːs/ free.ACC.M.PL et /et/ and.CONJ servōs /ˈser.woːs/ slave.ACC.M.PL aliēnōs /a.liˈeː.noːs/ another’s.ACC.M.PL quōs /kʷoːs/ who.ACC.M.PL bonā /ˈbo.naː/ good.ABL.F.SG fidē /ˈfi.deː/ faith.ABL.F.SG possidēmus /pos.siˈdeː.mus/ possess.1PL.PRES dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL quibus /ˈkʷi.bus/ which.ABL.M.PL singulīs /ˈsin.ɡu.liːs/ single.ABL.M.PL dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV dispiciāmus /dis.pi.kiˈaː.mus/ examine.1PL.PRES.SUBJ
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Adquiritur autem nobis non solum per nosmet ipsos, sed etiam per eos, quos in potestate manu mancipiove habemus; item per eos servos, in quibus usumfructum habemus; item per homines liberos et servos alienos, quos bona fide possidemus: de quibus singulis diligenter dispiciamus.
→ “Moreover, things are acquired for us not only through ourselves but also through those whom we hold in our power, in marital control (manus) or in bondage (mancipium); likewise through those slaves in whom we have a usufruct; likewise through free men and slaves of others whom we possess in good faith. Let us examine each of these carefully.”
— Gaius, Institutes 2.86
F-C: Latin Text Only
Adquiritur autem nobis non solum per nosmet ipsos, sed etiam per eos, quos in potestate manu mancipiove habemus; item per eos servos, in quibus usumfructum habemus; item per homines liberos et servos alienos, quos bona fide possidemus: de quibus singulis diligenter dispiciamus.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Adquīritur is an impersonal passive, “acquisition is made, things are acquired.” Nōbīs is a dative of advantage, “for us,” the regular case for the person who benefits from the acquisition. Per governs four accusative groups: nōsmet ipsōs, eōs (quōs …), eōs servōs, and hominēs līberōs et servōs aliēnōs. Nōsmet is the emphatic form of nōs, made with the suffix -met, and ipsōs strengthens it further: “through our very selves.” The three nouns potestāte, manū and mancipiō all depend on the single in; -ve, “or,” is attached to the last of them. In quibus ūsumfrūctum habēmus means “in whom we have a usufruct,” the right to use another’s property and take its fruits. Here the property is a slave, and his work and acquisitions are the fruits. Bonā fidē is an ablative of manner, “in good faith.” Dispiciāmus is a hortatory subjunctive, “let us examine.” Gaius often uses it to move from one topic to the next.
The three terms describe the old Roman household. Potestās is the power of the head of the family over his children and his slaves. Manus, literally “hand,” is the power that a husband (or his father) acquired over a wife in the old form of marriage. Mancipium is the condition of a free person conveyed to another by the formal sale called mancipātiō. In Gaius’s day it served chiefly as a step in emancipation and adoption. Everything acquired by persons in these conditions passed to the head of the family, per eos, “through them.”
Commentary. The passage shows the Roman way of thinking about agency. The law did not begin from the idea of representation. It began from the household: the head of the family acquired through those who belonged to him, almost as a hand acquires for the body. Outsiders, free persons not in one’s power, could not acquire for one at all (Gaius 2.95, 32.14). Possession was the first breach in that wall (32.11, 32.15). The modern law of agency, qui facit per alium facit per se (32.13), was built out of these beginnings. The spelling in F-B and F-C is standardised (v for consonantal u). Editions of the Verona text print seruos, mancipioue.
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The protocol assigns dialogue to prepositions. A Roman landowner, Titius, consults a jurist (iūris cōnsultus) in Rome early in the third century AD, soon after the death of the Emperor Severus (AD 211), whose constitution on possession through an agent the jurist cites. Titius wants to buy a farm in Campania without leaving Rome. The jurist explains how possession and ownership can come to him through his agent, using the rules of Sections A and F. The farm is in Italy, so the Twelve Tables’ two-year usucapion of land applies (Gaius, Institutes 2.42: fundi vero et aedium biennio); provincial land could not be usucapted (Gaius 2.46). Titius speaks the even-numbered lines and the jurist the odd-numbered lines. The text is a pedagogical composition in juristic Latin, not a quotation.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
32.16a Fundum a-farm in in Campāniā Campania emere to-buy volō I-want sed but per throughout hiemem the-winter Rōmā from-Rome discēdere to-depart nōn not possum I-am-able
32.16b Fundum /ˈfun.dum/ farm.ACC.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL Campāniā /kamˈpaː.ni.aː/ Campania.ABL.F.SG emere /ˈe.me.re/ buy.PRES.INF volō /ˈwo.loː/ want.1SG.PRES sed /sed/ but.CONJ per /per/ throughout.PREP+ACC hiemem /ˈhi.e.mem/ winter.ACC.F.SG Rōmā /ˈroː.maː/ Rome.ABL.F.SG discēdere /disˈkeː.de.re/ depart.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV possum /ˈpos.sum/ be-able.1SG.PRES
32.17a Nihil nothing obstat stands-in-the-way emere to-buy potes you-are-able per through prōcūrātōrem an-agent
32.17b Nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.NOM.N.SG obstat /ˈob.stat/ obstruct.3SG.PRES emere /ˈe.me.re/ buy.PRES.INF potes /ˈpo.tes/ be-able.2SG.PRES per /per/ through.PREP+ACC prōcūrātōrem /proː.kuː.raːˈtoː.rem/ agent.ACC.M.SG
32.18a Poteritne will-be-able? prōcūrātor the-agent fundum the-farm mihi for-me per by trāditiōnem delivery adquīrere to-acquire
32.18b Poteritne /po.teˈrit.ne/ be-able.3SG.FUT-Q prōcūrātor /proː.kuːˈraː.tor/ agent.NOM.M.SG fundum /ˈfun.dum/ farm.ACC.M.SG mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG per /per/ by.PREP+ACC trāditiōnem /traː.di.tiˈoː.nem/ delivery.ACC.F.SG adquīrere /adˈkʷiː.re.re/ acquire.PRES.INF
32.19a Possessiōnem possession quidem certainly per through eum him adquīrēs you-will-acquire etiam even ignōrāns not-knowing ut as dīvus the-deified Sevērus Severus cōnstituit decreed
32.19b Possessiōnem /pos.ses.siˈoː.nem/ possession.ACC.F.SG quidem /ˈkʷi.dem/ indeed.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC eum /ˈe.um/ he.ACC.M.SG adquīrēs /adˈkʷiː.reːs/ acquire.2SG.FUT etiam /ˈe.ti.am/ even.ADV ignōrāns /iɡˈnoː.raːns/ not-know.PRES.PART.NOM.M.SG ut /ut/ as.CONJ dīvus /ˈdiː.wus/ deified.NOM.M.SG Sevērus /seˈweː.rus/ Severus.NOM.M.SG cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/ decree.3SG.PERF
32.20a Et and dominium ownership per by eandem the-same trāditiōnem delivery
32.20b Et /et/ and.CONJ dominium /doˈmi.ni.um/ ownership.ACC.N.SG per /per/ by.PREP+ACC eandem /eˈan.dem/ same.ACC.F.SG trāditiōnem /traː.di.tiˈoː.nem/ delivery.ACC.F.SG
32.21a Ita yes sī if dominus the-owner fuit was quī the-one-who trādidit delivered sīn if minus not per by ūsūcapiōnem usucapion
32.21b Ita /ˈi.ta/ so.ADV sī /siː/ if.CONJ dominus /ˈdo.mi.nus/ owner.NOM.M.SG fuit /ˈfu.it/ be.3SG.PERF quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG trādidit /ˈtraː.di.dit/ deliver.3SG.PERF sīn /siːn/ if-however.CONJ minus /ˈmi.nus/ less.ADV.COMP per /per/ by.PREP+ACC ūsūcapiōnem /uː.suː.ka.piˈoː.nem/ usucapion.ACC.F.SG
32.22a Per throughout quot how-many annōs years possidēre to-possess oportēbit will-it-be-necessary
32.22b Per /per/ throughout.PREP+ACC quot /kʷot/ how-many.INDECL annōs /ˈan.noːs/ year.ACC.M.PL possidēre /pos.siˈdeː.re/ possess.PRES.INF oportēbit /o.porˈteː.bit/ be-necessary.3SG.FUT.IMPERS
32.23a Per throughout biennium two-years quia because fundus the-farm in in Italiā Italy est is
32.23b Per /per/ throughout.PREP+ACC biennium /biˈen.ni.um/ two-years.ACC.N.SG quia /ˈkʷi.a/ because.CONJ fundus /ˈfun.dus/ farm.NOM.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL Italiā /iˈta.li.aː/ Italy.ABL.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
32.24a Pretium the-price per through argentārium a-banker solvam I-shall-pay nōn not per through servum a-slave
32.24b Pretium /ˈpre.ti.um/ price.ACC.N.SG per /per/ through.PREP+ACC argentārium /ar.ɡenˈtaː.ri.um/ banker.ACC.M.SG solvam /ˈsol.wam/ pay.1SG.FUT nōn /noːn/ not.ADV per /per/ through.PREP+ACC servum /ˈser.wum/ slave.ACC.M.SG
32.25a Rēctē rightly Sed but cavē beware nē lest venditor the-seller per by fraudem fraud tē you dēcipiat should-deceive
32.25b Rēctē /ˈreːk.teː/ rightly.ADV Sed /sed/ but.CONJ cavē /ˈka.weː/ beware.2SG.PRES.IMPER nē /neː/ lest.CONJ venditor /ˈwen.di.tor/ seller.NOM.M.SG per /per/ by.PREP+ACC fraudem /ˈfrau̯.dem/ fraud.ACC.F.SG tē /teː/ you.ACC.SG dēcipiat /deːˈki.pi.at/ deceive.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
32.26a Per by deōs the-gods immortālēs immortal quot how-many perīcula dangers
32.26b Per /per/ by.PREP+ACC deōs /ˈde.oːs/ god.ACC.M.PL immortālēs /im.morˈtaː.leːs/ immortal.ACC.M.PL quot /kʷot/ how-many.INDECL perīcula /peˈriː.ku.la/ danger.NOM.N.PL
32.27a Nōlī do-not timēre to-fear per by hās this litterās letter prōcūrātōrem agent tuum your īnstruam I-shall-instruct
32.27b Nōlī /ˈnoː.liː/ not-want.2SG.PRES.IMPER timēre /tiˈmeː.re/ fear.PRES.INF per /per/ by.PREP+ACC hās /haːs/ this.ACC.F.PL litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL prōcūrātōrem /proː.kuː.raːˈtoː.rem/ agent.ACC.M.SG tuum /ˈtu.um/ your.ACC.M.SG īnstruam /ˈiːn.stru.am/ instruct.1SG.FUT
32.28a Ergō so quod what prōcūrātor agent meus my possidēbit will-possess per through eum him ego I possidēbō shall-possess
32.28b Ergō /ˈer.ɡoː/ therefore.ADV quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG prōcūrātor /proː.kuːˈraː.tor/ agent.NOM.M.SG meus /ˈme.us/ my.NOM.M.SG possidēbit /pos.siˈdeː.bit/ possess.3SG.FUT per /per/ through.PREP+ACC eum /ˈe.um/ he.ACC.M.SG ego /ˈe.ɡo/ I.NOM.SG possidēbō /pos.siˈdeː.boː/ possess.1SG.FUT
32.29a Ita so est it-is Litterās the-letter hodiē today per by tabellārium courier mittam I-shall-send
32.29b Ita /ˈi.ta/ so.ADV est /est/ be.3SG.PRES Litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL hodiē /ˈho.di.eː/ today.ADV per /per/ by.PREP+ACC tabellārium /ta.belˈlaː.ri.um/ courier.ACC.M.SG mittam /ˈmit.tam/ send.1SG.FUT
32.30a Optimē excellent tabellārius the-courier per along Viam the-Way Appiam Appian intrā within trīduum three-days Capuam to-Capua perveniet will-get-through
32.30b Optimē /ˈop.ti.meː/ well.ADV.SUPERL tabellārius /ta.belˈlaː.ri.us/ courier.NOM.M.SG per /per/ along.PREP+ACC Viam /ˈwi.am/ way.ACC.F.SG Appiam /ˈap.pi.am/ Appian.ACC.F.SG intrā /ˈin.traː/ within.PREP+ACC trīduum /ˈtriː.du.um/ three-days.ACC.N.SG Capuam /ˈka.pu.am/ Capua.ACC.F.SG perveniet /perˈwe.ni.et/ arrive.3SG.FUT
Part B: Natural Sentences
32.16 Titius: “Fundum in Campāniā emere volō, sed per hiemem Rōmā discēdere nōn possum.” → Titius: “I want to buy a farm in Campania, but I cannot leave Rome all through the winter.”
32.17 Iūris cōnsultus: “Nihil obstat: emere potes per prōcūrātōrem.” → The jurist: “Nothing stands in the way: you can buy through an agent.”
32.18 Titius: “Poteritne prōcūrātor fundum mihi per trāditiōnem adquīrere?” → Titius: “Will the agent be able to acquire the farm for me by delivery?”
32.19 Iūris cōnsultus: “Possessiōnem quidem per eum adquīrēs, etiam ignōrāns, ut dīvus Sevērus cōnstituit.” → The jurist: “Possession, certainly, you will acquire through him, even without knowing it, as the deified Severus laid down.”
32.20 Titius: “Et dominium per eandem trāditiōnem?” → Titius: “And ownership, by the same delivery?”
32.21 Iūris cōnsultus: “Ita, sī dominus fuit quī trādidit; sīn minus, per ūsūcapiōnem.” → The jurist: “Yes, if the one who delivered it was the owner; if not, by usucapion.”
32.22 Titius: “Per quot annōs possidēre oportēbit?” → Titius: “For how many years will I have to possess it?”
32.23 Iūris cōnsultus: “Per biennium, quia fundus in Italiā est.” → The jurist: “For two years, because the farm is in Italy.”
32.24 Titius: “Pretium per argentārium solvam, nōn per servum.” → Titius: “I shall pay the price through a banker, not through a slave.”
32.25 Iūris cōnsultus: “Rēctē. Sed cavē nē venditor per fraudem tē dēcipiat.” → The jurist: “Quite right. But take care that the seller does not deceive you by fraud.”
32.26 Titius: “Per deōs immortālēs, quot perīcula!” → Titius: “By the immortal gods, how many dangers!”
32.27 Iūris cōnsultus: “Nōlī timēre: per hās litterās prōcūrātōrem tuum īnstruam.” → The jurist: “Do not be afraid: I shall instruct your agent by this letter.”
32.28 Titius: “Ergō quod prōcūrātor meus possidēbit, per eum ego possidēbō?” → Titius: “So what my agent possesses, I shall possess through him?”
32.29 Iūris cōnsultus: “Ita est. Litterās hodiē per tabellārium mittam.” → The jurist: “That is so. I shall send the letter by courier today.”
32.30 Titius: “Optimē: tabellārius per Viam Appiam intrā trīduum Capuam perveniet.” → Titius: “Excellent: the courier will get through to Capua along the Appian Way within three days.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
32.16 Titius: “Fundum in Campāniā emere volō, sed per hiemem Rōmā discēdere nōn possum.”
32.17 Iūris cōnsultus: “Nihil obstat: emere potes per prōcūrātōrem.”
32.18 Titius: “Poteritne prōcūrātor fundum mihi per trāditiōnem adquīrere?”
32.19 Iūris cōnsultus: “Possessiōnem quidem per eum adquīrēs, etiam ignōrāns, ut dīvus Sevērus cōnstituit.”
32.20 Titius: “Et dominium per eandem trāditiōnem?”
32.21 Iūris cōnsultus: “Ita, sī dominus fuit quī trādidit; sīn minus, per ūsūcapiōnem.”
32.22 Titius: “Per quot annōs possidēre oportēbit?”
32.23 Iūris cōnsultus: “Per biennium, quia fundus in Italiā est.”
32.24 Titius: “Pretium per argentārium solvam, nōn per servum.”
32.25 Iūris cōnsultus: “Rēctē. Sed cavē nē venditor per fraudem tē dēcipiat.”
32.26 Titius: “Per deōs immortālēs, quot perīcula!”
32.27 Iūris cōnsultus: “Nōlī timēre: per hās litterās prōcūrātōrem tuum īnstruam.”
32.28 Titius: “Ergō quod prōcūrātor meus possidēbit, per eum ego possidēbō?”
32.29 Iūris cōnsultus: “Ita est. Litterās hodiē per tabellārium mittam.”
32.30 Titius: “Optimē: tabellārius per Viam Appiam intrā trīduum Capuam perveniet.”
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The dialogue shows per in each of its main uses. Time: per hiemem (32.16), per quot annōs (32.22), per biennium (32.23). The intermediary: per prōcūrātōrem (32.17), per eum (32.19, 32.28), per argentārium and per servum (32.24), per tabellārium (32.29). Means and manner: per trāditiōnem (32.18, 32.20), per ūsūcapiōnem (32.21), per fraudem (32.25), per hās litterās (32.27). Oath: per deōs immortālēs (32.26). Space: per Viam Appiam (32.30). Every noun after per is accusative, including the adjectives that agree with it (eandem trāditiōnem, hās litterās, deōs immortālēs, Viam Appiam).
The law behind the dialogue. The jurist promises Titius possession through his agent (32.19), as Paul and the Institutes allow (32.11, 32.15). He does not promise that the contract of sale will bind Titius directly: in classical law the agent who buys is the party to the sale. Ownership passes by delivery if the seller was owner, and otherwise only by usucapion (32.21, after Institutes 2.9.5). For Italian land, usucapion took two years (Gaius 2.42). Per biennium in 32.23 answers per quot annōs in 32.22. In 32.28 Titius states the core of the doctrine in his own words: what the agent possesses, he possesses through him.
Other points. Rōmā (32.16) is an ablative of separation without a preposition, the rule for names of cities: “from Rome.” Capuam (32.30) is the accusative of motion towards a city, also without a preposition. Poteritne (32.18) carries the question particle -ne. Sīn minus (32.21) is the fixed phrase “but if not.” Cavē nē + subjunctive (32.25) is “take care that … not.” Nōlī + infinitive (32.27) is the negative command. Quot (32.22, 32.26) is indeclinable. Litterae in the plural means a letter (one document), so hās litterās is “this letter” (32.27). Intrā trīduum (32.30) shows another preposition with the accusative, “within three days.” Per Viam Appiam is the route, and perveniet, from per + venīre, is the arrival at the end of it.
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The e of per is short: /per/. In the compounds it stays short: perinde /peˈrin.de/, perīcula /peˈriː.ku.la/, perveniet /perˈwe.ni.et/.
Adquīrō and acquīrō: both spellings are found. Adquīrō is the etymological spelling (ad + quaerō). In acquīrō the d has been assimilated to the following q. This lesson follows the legal texts it quotes, which print adquiritur, adquiri. The pronunciation is the same: /adˈkʷiː.ri.tur/ or /akˈkʷiː.ri.tur/.
Enclitics -ve and -ne draw the stress to the syllable before them: cūrātōremve /kuː.raː.toːˈrem.we/, mancipiōve /man.ki.piˈoː.we/, poteritne /po.teˈrit.ne/.
Ūsūcapiō: two long u’s, from ūsū, “by use,” and capiō, “I take.” Many writers print it as two words, usu capio.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all legal citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions and law reports. Legal phrases in running English text (per curiam, qui facit per alium) are likewise printed without macrons.
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūs, servum). Many editions print i and u throughout (ius, seruum). Editions of Gaius print seruos, mancipioue.
The c of prōcūrātor, procurationem and incuriam is always /k/: per incūriam /per inˈkuː.ri.am/.
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