← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³³ ◊ᵛⁱᵈᵉᵒ
Welcome to Lesson 33 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the verb videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum, “to see.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 31st among all Latin words. Few verbs matter more to lawyers, and for two reasons. In the active, videō is the verb of the eyewitness, the inspecting notary and the judge who looks at the documents. In the passive, videor means “I seem” or “I am held to be,” and that passive is one of the commonest words in the Roman law books. It appears in the maxims qui tacet consentire videtur, non videntur qui errant consentire and nullus videtur dolo facere qui suo iure utitur. English legal writing still carries it in vide supra, q.v. (quod vide), viz. (videlicet) and the notarial vidimus.
What does videō mean in legal Latin?
In the active, videō means “I see,” with the eyes or with the mind: testem vīdī, “I saw the witness”; vidēsne quid agās?, “do you see what you are doing?” It takes a direct object, an accusative and infinitive (“I see that …”), or an indirect question (“I see whether …”). With ut or nē it means “to see to it that,” “to take care that … not”: vidēret nē quid rēs pūblica dētrīmentī caperet, “he was to see to it that the state took no harm” (Section F).
In the passive, videor has two uses. It means “I am seen.” Far more often it means “I seem, I appear, I am thought to be.” In the language of the jurists it comes close to “I am deemed, I am held in law to be”: nūllus vidētur dolō facere, “no one is held to act with fraud.” Mihi vidētur means “it seems to me, in my opinion,” and it is how a Roman jurist gives his own view. Sī vidētur means “if it seems right, if you agree.” Vīsum est means “it was decided, it was resolved.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English says “it seems that the defendant is innocent.” Latin normally makes the person the subject of the verb: reus innocēns esse vidētur, literally “the defendant seems to be innocent.” This personal construction is the rule in classical Latin. The impersonal pattern vidētur reum innocentem esse is not the normal classical way of saying it.
English also keeps “see” and “seem” apart. Latin uses one verb for both, active and passive. When a lawyer reads vidētur, the first question is therefore not “who sees?” but “who is held to be what?”
Etymology: videō goes back to an Indo-European root meaning “to see” and so “to know.” It is related to Greek εἶδον, “I saw,” and οἶδα, “I know (because I have seen),” to German wissen and English “wit” and “wise.” From the supine vīsum come vīsiō, vīsus, “sight,” and the English words vision, visit, visa and evidence (from ēvidēns, “plain to see”). Compounds include prōvideō, “foresee, provide for,” and invideō, “look askance at, envy.”
Key Takeaways
⚖ Videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum is a second-conjugation verb: vidē- in the present system, vīd- in the perfect, vīs- in the supine
⚖ Active videō means “see”: with an accusative, with an accusative and infinitive (“see that”), with an indirect question (“see whether”), and with ut/nē (“see to it that”)
⚖ Passive videor usually means “seem, be held to be,” and Latin prefers the personal construction: reus innocēns esse vidētur
⚖ In the jurists, vidētur often means “is deemed in law”: qui tacet consentire videtur
⚖ Mihi vidētur is “in my opinion”; sī vidētur is “if you agree”; vīsum est is “it was resolved”
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videō /ˈwi.de.oː/: three syllables, stress on the first. The i is short, the e is short (a vowel before another vowel is short), the final ō is long.
vidēre /wiˈdeː.re/: the long ē of the second conjugation takes the stress. Do not confuse it with the third-conjugation pattern (dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/), where the stress falls on the first syllable.
vīdī /ˈwiː.diː/: in the perfect the first i is long. The length of the vowel is the only thing that separates vidēmus /wiˈdeː.mus/, “we see,” from vīdimus /ˈwiː.di.mus/, “we have seen.”
vīsum /ˈwiː.sum/: long ī, and the s is always voiceless, as in English “sun,” never /z/.
vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/, videntur /wiˈden.tur/: the e before nt is short.
The v is pronounced /w/ in the restored classical pronunciation. Say “WI-de-oh,” with a short i and a short e, not “VEE-day-oh.” In English legal usage vide is often said “VEE-day” or “VY-dee.” This course gives the classical pronunciation, /ˈwi.deː/.
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33.1a Testem the-witness vīdī I-saw
33.1b Testem /ˈtes.tem/ witness.ACC.M.SG vīdī /ˈwiː.diː/ see.1SG.PERF
33.2a Quid what vidēs do-you-see
33.2b Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG vidēs /ˈwi.deːs/ see.2SG.PRES
33.3a Vidē see suprā above
33.3b Vidē /ˈwi.deː/ see.2SG.PRES.IMPER suprā /ˈsu.praː/ above.ADV
33.4a Rem the-thing ipse himself vīdit he-saw
33.4b Rem /rem/ thing.ACC.F.SG ipse /ˈip.se/ self.NOM.M.SG vīdit /ˈwiː.dit/ see.3SG.PERF
33.5a Litterās the-letter vīdimus we-have-seen
33.5b Litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL vīdimus /ˈwiː.di.mus/ see.1PL.PERF
33.6a Testis the-witness fūrem the-thief ex from fenestrā the-window vīdisse to-have-seen dīcit says
33.6b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG fūrem /ˈfuː.rem/ thief.ACC.M.SG ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL fenestrā /feˈnes.traː/ window.ABL.F.SG vīdisse /wiːˈdis.se/ see.PERF.INF dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES
33.7a Iūdex the-judge tabulās the-documents ipse himself vidēre to-see voluit wanted
33.7b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG tabulās /ˈta.bu.laːs/ document.ACC.F.PL ipse /ˈip.se/ self.NOM.M.SG vidēre /wiˈdeː.re/ see.PRES.INF voluit /ˈwo.lu.it/ want.3SG.PERF
33.8a Reus the-defendant mihi to-me innocēns innocent esse to-be vidētur seems
33.8b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG innocēns /ˈin.no.keːns/ innocent.NOM.M.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS
33.9a Sī if vōbīs to-you vidētur it-seems-good iūdicēs judges testēs the-witnesses audiāmus let-us-hear
33.9b Sī /siː/ if.CONJ vōbīs /ˈwoː.biːs/ you.DAT.PL vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.VOC.M.PL testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.ACC.M.PL audiāmus /au̯.diˈaː.mus/ hear.1PL.PRES.SUBJ
33.10a Nōtārius the-notary īnstrūmentum the-instrument vīdit saw et and subscrīpsit signed
33.10b Nōtārius /noːˈtaː.ri.us/ notary.NOM.M.SG īnstrūmentum /iːn.struːˈmen.tum/ instrument.ACC.N.SG vīdit /ˈwiː.dit/ see.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ subscrīpsit /subˈskriːp.sit/ sign.3SG.PERF
33.11a Nūllus no-one vidētur is-held dolō with-fraud facere to-act quī who suō his-own iūre right ūtitur uses
33.11b Nūllus /ˈnuːl.lus/ no-one.NOM.M.SG vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS dolō /ˈdo.loː/ fraud.ABL.M.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG suō /ˈsu.oː/ his-own.ABL.N.SG iūre /ˈjuː.re/ right.ABL.N.SG ūtitur /ˈuː.ti.tur/ use.3SG.PRES.DEP
33.12a Nōn not videntur are-held quī those-who errant are-mistaken cōnsentīre to-consent
33.12b Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV videntur /wiˈden.tur/ see.3PL.PRES.PASS quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.PL errant /ˈer.rant/ err.3PL.PRES cōnsentīre /koːn.senˈtiː.re/ consent.PRES.INF
33.13a Quī who tacet is-silent cōnsentīre to-consent vidētur is-held
33.13b Quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG tacet /ˈta.ket/ be-silent.3SG.PRES cōnsentīre /koːn.senˈtiː.re/ consent.PRES.INF vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS
33.14a Nēmō no-one vidētur is-held fraudāre to-defraud eōs those quī who sciunt know et and cōnsentiunt consent
33.14b Nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS fraudāre /frau̯ˈdaː.re/ defraud.PRES.INF eōs /ˈe.oːs/ that.ACC.M.PL quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.PL sciunt /ˈski.unt/ know.3PL.PRES et /et/ and.CONJ cōnsentiunt /koːnˈsen.ti.unt/ consent.3PL.PRES
33.15a Quod what quis anyone mandātō by-the-order facit does iūdicis of-a-judge dolō with-fraud facere to-do nōn not vidētur he-is-held cum since habeat he-has pārēre to-obey necesse necessary
33.15b Quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG quis /kʷis/ anyone.NOM.M.SG mandātō /manˈdaː.toː/ order.ABL.N.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES iūdicis /ˈjuː.di.kis/ judge.GEN.M.SG dolō /ˈdo.loː/ fraud.ABL.M.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS cum /kum/ since.CONJ habeat /ˈha.be.at/ have.3SG.PRES.SUBJ pārēre /paːˈreː.re/ obey.PRES.INF necesse /neˈkes.se/ necessary.INDECL
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33.1 Testem vīdī. → “I saw the witness.”
33.2 Quid vidēs? → “What do you see?”
33.3 Vidē suprā. → “See above.” (the citation formula vide supra)
33.4 Rem ipse vīdit. → “He saw the thing with his own eyes.”
33.5 Litterās vīdimus. → “We have seen the letter.” (the word that names the notarial vidimus)
33.6 Testis fūrem ex fenestrā vīdisse dīcit. → “The witness says that he saw the thief from the window.”
33.7 Iūdex tabulās ipse vidēre voluit. → “The judge wanted to see the documents himself.”
33.8 Reus mihi innocēns esse vidētur. → “In my opinion the defendant is innocent.”
33.9 Sī vōbīs vidētur, iūdicēs, testēs audiāmus. → “If you agree, members of the court, let us hear the witnesses.”
33.10 Nōtārius īnstrūmentum vīdit et subscrīpsit. → “The notary inspected the instrument and signed it.”
33.11 Nūllus vidētur dolō facere, quī suō iūre ūtitur. → “No one is held to act with fraud who exercises his own right.” (Gaius, Digest 50.17.55)
33.12 Nōn videntur, quī errant, cōnsentīre. → “Those who are mistaken are not held to consent.” (Ulpian, Digest 50.17.116.2)
33.13 Quī tacet, cōnsentīre vidētur. → “He who is silent is held to consent.” (Liber Sextus, Rule of Law 43)
33.14 Nēmō vidētur fraudāre eōs, quī sciunt et cōnsentiunt. → “No one is held to defraud those who know and consent.” (Ulpian, Digest 50.17.145)
33.15 Quod quis mandātō facit iūdicis, dolō facere nōn vidētur, cum habeat pārēre necesse. → “What a person does by order of a judge, he is not held to do with fraud, since he is bound to obey.” (Liber Sextus, Rule of Law 24)
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33.1 Testem vīdī.
33.2 Quid vidēs?
33.3 Vidē suprā.
33.4 Rem ipse vīdit.
33.5 Litterās vīdimus.
33.6 Testis fūrem ex fenestrā vīdisse dīcit.
33.7 Iūdex tabulās ipse vidēre voluit.
33.8 Reus mihi innocēns esse vidētur.
33.9 Sī vōbīs vidētur, iūdicēs, testēs audiāmus.
33.10 Nōtārius īnstrūmentum vīdit et subscrīpsit.
33.11 Nūllus vidētur dolō facere, quī suō iūre ūtitur.
33.12 Nōn videntur, quī errant, cōnsentīre.
33.13 Quī tacet, cōnsentīre vidētur.
33.14 Nēmō vidētur fraudāre eōs, quī sciunt et cōnsentiunt.
33.15 Quod quis mandātō facit iūdicis, dolō facere nōn vidētur, cum habeat pārēre necesse.
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These are the grammar rules for videō in Latin:
1. Principal parts. Videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum: second conjugation. The present stem is vidē-, the perfect stem vīd- (with a long ī), the supine stem vīs-. In the glosses of this lesson every form is glossed under the root see, with its person, tense and voice: see.3SG.PRES.PASS for vidētur. The English line a gives the sense the context requires (“seems,” “is held,” “it-seems-good”).
2. The present active: videō, vidēs, videt, vidēmus, vidētis, vident. Imperative: vidē (33.3), vidēte. Future: vidēbō, vidēbis, vidēbit … (33.18). Imperfect: vidēbam, vidēbās, vidēbat …
3. The perfect active: vīdī (33.1), vīdistī, vīdit (33.4, 33.10, 33.19, 33.28, 33.30), vīdimus (33.5, 33.25), vīdistis, vīdērunt (33.23). Pluperfect: vīderam, vīderās, vīderat (33.27, 33.29). Perfect infinitive: vīdisse (33.6). Note the pair vidēmus, “we see,” and vīdimus, “we have seen”: the long ī and the short i after d mark the perfect.
4. The subjunctive: imperfect vidērem, vidērēs, vidēret (33.26, F.1), vidērent (33.22); present videam, videās, videat.
5. The passive: videor, vidēris, vidētur (33.8, 33.9, 33.11, 33.13, 33.14, 33.15, 33.21, 33.28), vidēmur, vidēminī, videntur (33.12). Imperfect vidēbar … vidēbātur. Infinitive vidērī (F.4). Perfect vīsus (-a, -um) sum, “I seemed, I was seen”; impersonal vīsum est, “it was decided.” Gerundive videndus, -a, -um, “to be seen, to be considered” (33.16). Future participle vīsūrus, “about to see” (33.24).
6. Videō with an object: testem vīdī (33.1), rem vīdit (33.4), litterās vīdimus (33.5).
7. Videō with an accusative and infinitive: “see that …” The thing seen is a fact: sigillum integrum esse vīdit, “he saw that the seal was intact” (33.19). The same construction reports what someone says he saw: fūrem vīdisse dīcit (33.6).
8. Videō with an indirect question: “see whether, see what.” The verb of the question goes into the subjunctive: ut vidēret num cōnsentīrent, “to see whether they agreed” (33.26). The jurists’ phrase videndum est an … means “it must be considered whether …”
9. Videō ut / videō nē + subjunctive: “see to it that / see to it that … not.” Opīmius cōnsul vidēret nē quid rēs pūblica dētrīmentī caperet, “the consul Opimius was to see to it that the state took no harm” (F.1). The subjunctive of the ut-clause is imperfect because the main verb (decrēvit) is past.
10. Videor = “I seem, I am held to be.” Latin uses the personal construction: the person or thing that seems is the subject, and the predicate is an infinitive. Reus innocēns esse vidētur (33.8); quī tacet cōnsentīre vidētur (33.13). The predicate adjective agrees with the subject in the nominative: reus … innocēns. The person who thinks so stands in the dative: mihi (33.8), vōbīs (33.9). With a plural subject the verb is plural: nōn videntur, quī errant, cōnsentīre (33.12).
11. Vidētur in the language of the jurists. In the Digest and the canon-law rules, vidētur often means not “seems” but “is held, is deemed in law.” Nūllus vidētur dolō facere (33.11) does not mean that a person seems honest. It means that the law treats him as acting without fraud. This is the sense in 33.11 to 33.15, and the reason why legal translators often write “is deemed.”
12. Impersonal uses. Sī vidētur, sī vōbīs vidētur, “if it seems good (to you), if you agree” (33.9). Vīsum est, “it was decided”: senātuī vīsum est, “the senate resolved.” Mihi vidētur, used without an infinitive, means “I think so, it seems right to me.” When an infinitive follows, classical Latin keeps the personal form: say reus mihi innocēns esse vidētur, not vidētur mihi reum innocentem esse.
13. The gerundive videndum. Mercātor nōtāriō prīvilēgium videndum trādidit (33.16), “the merchant handed the charter to the notary to be inspected.” A gerundive agreeing with the object of a verb of giving or handing over expresses purpose.
The forms of videō used in this lesson: vīdī, vidēs, vidē, vīdit, vīdimus, vīdisse, vidēre, vidētur, videntur, videndum, vidēbō, videō, vidērent, vīdērunt, vīsūrīs, vidēret, vīderat; and in Section F, vidēret and vidērī.
Common Mistakes
Translating every vidētur as “is seen.” In the law books it almost always means “seems” or “is held to be.” Quī tacet cōnsentīre vidētur does not mean “he who is silent is seen to consent.”
Using the impersonal English construction: ✗ vidētur reum innocentem esse. Say reus innocēns esse vidētur.
Putting the predicate in the wrong case: ✗ reus innocentem esse vidētur. With videor, the predicate agrees with the subject: innocēns.
Confusing vidēmus, “we see,” with vīdimus, “we have seen.” The quantity of the i and the place of the stress tell them apart: /wiˈdeː.mus/ against /ˈwiː.di.mus/.
Treating vīsum as “visa” in the English sense. Vīsum is the supine and the neuter of the perfect participle, “seen.” Vīsum est is “it was decided.” The English visa comes from the Latin plural vīsa, “things seen,” through French.
Pronouncing v as English /v/ and stressing vidēre on the first syllable. Say /wiˈdeː.re/.
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Qui tacet consentire videtur
“He who is silent is held to consent” is Rule 43 of the eighty-eight regulae iuris that close the Liber Sextus of Pope Boniface VIII (1298). It is a rule of canon law, not of Roman law, and the very next rule qualifies it at once: is qui tacet, non fatetur, sed nec utique negare videtur, “he who is silent does not confess, but neither is he held to deny” (Rule 44). Rule 44 reproduces, almost word for word, a rule of the Digest (50.17.142). Later lawyers reconciled the two by adding a condition: silence counts as consent only ubi loqui potuit et debuit, “where he could and should have spoken.” Modern contract law starts from the Roman side: silence is not, as a rule, acceptance of an offer.
Nullus videtur dolo facere
Gaius’s rule (Digest 50.17.55), “no one is held to act with fraud who exercises his own right” (33.11), stands behind the modern maxim qui iure suo utitur neminem laedit. The civil-law doctrine of the abuse of rights marks its limit: a right exercised only in order to harm another is no longer protected.
Non videntur qui errant consentire
Ulpian’s rule (Digest 50.17.116.2), “those who are mistaken are not held to consent” (33.12), is the root of the law of mistake. The Roman lawyers built on it the doctrine that a fundamental error, about the identity of the thing sold for instance, prevents an agreement from coming into being at all.
Nemo videtur fraudare eos qui sciunt et consentiunt
“No one is held to defraud those who know and consent” (Ulpian, Digest 50.17.145; 33.14). The canonists put the same idea in Rule 27 of the Liber Sextus, scienti et consentienti non fit iniuria neque dolus, the ancestor of the maxim volenti non fit iniuria.
Mandato iudicis
Rule 24 of the Liber Sextus (33.15) protects the person who acts on the order of a judge: he is bound to obey, so the law does not hold him guilty of fraud. Like many of the canonists’ rules, it takes up a rule of the Roman jurists collected in the last title of the Digest.
Mihi videtur and videndum est
When a Roman jurist gives his own opinion, he often writes mihi vidētur or placet, “I hold.” When he opens a question, he writes videndum est an …, “it must be considered whether …” A reader of the Digest learns to watch for these words: they separate the jurist’s view from the facts of the case.
Vidimus
A vidimus is a certified copy of a document, made by a public authority or a notary who has inspected the original. It takes its name from the word vidimus, “we have seen,” with which the authority declares that it has seen the original and found it sound. Medieval chanceries and notaries issued vidimus copies so that a charter could be produced in many places while the original stayed safe at home. The English royal chancery had the same instrument under the name inspeximus, “we have inspected.” The Genre Section below tells the story of such a copy.
Vide, q.v., viz.
Legal footnotes still use the imperative: vide, “see,” vide supra, “see above,” vide infra, “see below,” q.v. for quod vide, “which see.” Viz. abbreviates videlicet, from vidēre licet, “it is permitted to see,” that is, “namely.” The z is a medieval scribe’s mark of abbreviation, not a letter of the word.
Videant consules
In a state emergency the Roman senate passed the decree which modern historians call the senātūs cōnsultum ultimum, instructing the magistrates to see to it that the state suffered no harm. Its wording is usually quoted as videant consules ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat. Cicero’s first speech against Catiline (Section F) reports the first use of the decree, in 121 BC.
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The following passage comes from Cicero’s First Speech against Catiline (In Catilinam 1.4), delivered in the senate in November 63 BC. Cicero, as consul, reminds the senators that they have already passed the emergency decree against Catiline, and that in 121 BC the same decree had been carried out without a night’s delay. The decree itself is reported with vidēret: the consul is to “see to it” that the state takes no harm. At the end of the section Cicero uses the passive vidērī, “to seem,” of himself.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Dēcrēvit decreed quondam once senātus the-senate ut that L. Lucius Opīmius Opimius cōnsul the-consul vidēret should-see-to-it nē that-not quid anything rēs the-state pūblica public dētrīmentī of-harm caperet should-take
F.1b Dēcrēvit /deːˈkreː.wit/ decree.3SG.PERF quondam /ˈkʷon.dam/ once.ADV senātus /seˈnaː.tus/ senate.NOM.M.SG ut /ut/ that.CONJ L. /ˈluː.ki.us/ Lucius.NOM.M.SG Opīmius /oˈpiː.mi.us/ Opimius.NOM.M.SG cōnsul /ˈkoːn.sul/ consul.NOM.M.SG vidēret /wiˈdeː.ret/ see.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ nē /neː/ lest.CONJ quid /kʷid/ anything.ACC.N.SG rēs /reːs/ thing.NOM.F.SG pūblica /ˈpuː.bli.ka/ public.NOM.F.SG dētrīmentī /deː.triːˈmen.tiː/ harm.GEN.N.SG caperet /ˈka.pe.ret/ take.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
F.2a nox night nūlla no intercessit came-between interfectus killed est was propter on-account-of quāsdam certain sēditiōnum of-seditions suspīciōnēs suspicions C. Gaius Gracchus Gracchus clārissimō most-distinguished patre father avō grandfather maiōribus ancestors
F.2b nox /noks/ night.NOM.F.SG nūlla /ˈnuːl.la/ no.NOM.F.SG intercessit /in.terˈkes.sit/ intervene.3SG.PERF interfectus /in.terˈfek.tus/ kill.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES propter /ˈprop.ter/ because-of.PREP+ACC quāsdam /ˈkʷaːs.dam/ certain.ACC.F.PL sēditiōnum /seː.di.tiˈoː.num/ sedition.GEN.F.PL suspīciōnēs /sus.piː.kiˈoː.neːs/ suspicion.ACC.F.PL C. /ˈɡaː.i.us/ Gaius.NOM.M.SG Gracchus /ˈɡrak.kʰus/ Gracchus.NOM.M.SG clārissimō /klaːˈris.si.moː/ distinguished.ABL.M.SG.SUPERL patre /ˈpa.tre/ father.ABL.M.SG avō /ˈa.woː/ grandfather.ABL.M.SG maiōribus /majˈjoː.ri.bus/ ancestor.ABL.M.PL
F.3a occīsus slain est was cum with līberīs his-children M. Marcus Fulvius Fulvius cōnsulāris the-former-consul
F.3b occīsus /okˈkiː.sus/ kill.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES cum /kum/ with.PREP+ABL līberīs /ˈliː.be.riːs/ child.ABL.M.PL M. /ˈmaːr.kus/ Marcus.NOM.M.SG Fulvius /ˈful.wi.us/ Fulvius.NOM.M.SG cōnsulāris /koːn.suˈlaː.ris/ ex-consul.NOM.M.SG
F.4a Cupiō I-desire patrēs fathers cōnscrīptī enrolled mē myself esse to-be clēmentem merciful cupiō I-desire in in tantīs so-great reī of-the-state pūblicae public perīculīs dangers mē myself nōn not dissolūtum lax vidērī to-seem
F.4b Cupiō /ˈku.pi.oː/ desire.1SG.PRES patrēs /ˈpa.treːs/ father.VOC.M.PL cōnscrīptī /koːnˈskriːp.tiː/ enrol.PERF.PART.PASS.VOC.M.PL mē /meː/ I.ACC.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF clēmentem /kleːˈmen.tem/ merciful.ACC.M.SG cupiō /ˈku.pi.oː/ desire.1SG.PRES in /in/ in.PREP+ABL tantīs /ˈtan.tiːs/ so-great.ABL.N.PL reī /ˈre.iː/ thing.GEN.F.SG pūblicae /ˈpuː.bli.kae̯/ public.GEN.F.SG perīculīs /peˈriː.ku.liːs/ danger.ABL.N.PL mē /meː/ I.ACC.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV dissolūtum /dis.soˈluː.tum/ lax.ACC.M.SG vidērī /wiˈdeː.riː/ see.PRES.INF.PASS
F.5a sed but iam now mē myself ipse I-myself inertiae of-inaction nēquitiaeque and-of-negligence condemnō I-condemn
F.5b sed /sed/ but.CONJ iam /jam/ now.ADV mē /meː/ I.ACC.SG ipse /ˈip.se/ self.NOM.M.SG inertiae /iˈner.ti.ae̯/ inaction.GEN.F.SG nēquitiaeque /neː.kʷi.tiˈae̯.kʷe/ worthlessness.GEN.F.SG-and condemnō /konˈdem.noː/ condemn.1SG.PRES
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opimius consul videret, ne quid res publica detrimenti caperet; nox nulla intercessit; interfectus est propter quasdam seditionum suspiciones C. Gracchus, clarissimo patre, avo, maioribus, occisus est cum liberis M. Fulvius consularis. … Cupio, patres conscripti, me esse clementem, cupio in tantis rei publicae periculis me non dissolutum videri, sed iam me ipse inertiae nequitiaeque condemno.
→ “The senate once decreed that the consul Lucius Opimius should see to it that the state suffered no harm. Not a single night intervened: Gaius Gracchus, the son, grandson and descendant of most distinguished men, was put to death on certain suspicions of sedition, and Marcus Fulvius, a former consul, was slain together with his children. … I wish, members of the senate, to be merciful; I wish not to seem lax when the state is in such great danger; but now I condemn myself for inaction and negligence.”
— Cicero, In Catilinam 1.4
F-C: Latin Text Only
Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opimius consul videret, ne quid res publica detrimenti caperet; nox nulla intercessit; interfectus est propter quasdam seditionum suspiciones C. Gracchus, clarissimo patre, avo, maioribus, occisus est cum liberis M. Fulvius consularis. … Cupio, patres conscripti, me esse clementem, cupio in tantis rei publicae periculis me non dissolutum videri, sed iam me ipse inertiae nequitiaeque condemno.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Dēcrēvit … ut … vidēret is an indirect command: the senate’s decree is reported in an ut-clause with the subjunctive, imperfect because dēcrēvit is past. Inside it, vidēret nē … caperet is the construction videō nē, “see to it that … not.” Quid after nē means “anything” (after sī, nisi, num and nē, aliquis drops its ali-). Dētrīmentī is a partitive genitive with quid: literally “anything of harm.” Clārissimō patre, avō, maiōribus is an ablative of description or origin: Gracchus was a man “of a most distinguished father, grandfather and ancestors.” His father was Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, twice consul; his maternal grandfather was Scipio Africanus. In the second sentence the passive infinitive vidērī follows cupiō in an accusative and infinitive: mē nōn dissolūtum vidērī, “that I should not seem lax.” Dissolūtum agrees with mē. Inertiae nēquitiaeque is a genitive of the charge with condemnō, as in the formula damnāre aliquem fūrtī, “to condemn someone for theft.”
Commentary. The senate did not give the consuls new powers by this decree. It told them, in the language of videō, to watch over the state. What that permitted was disputed then and remains disputed now. Opimius had Gaius Gracchus and Marcus Fulvius Flaccus killed without trial, and was himself prosecuted for it afterwards and acquitted. Cicero, consul in 63 BC, holds the same decree against Catiline and blames himself for not acting on it. In 58 BC he was exiled for having put Catiline’s associates to death under it without trial. The passage shows both faces of the verb: the magistrate who must see to the safety of the state, and the magistrate who does not want to seem weak. The spelling in F-B and F-C is standardised (v for consonantal u; capitals for proper names). The abbreviations L., C. and M. stand for Lūcius, Gāius and Mārcus. The ellipsis marks the omitted middle of the section.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
The protocol assigns narrative to verbs. A merchant owns an old charter of privilege and needs to produce it before a judge in another city, but he does not want to send the original away. A notary inspects it, calls witnesses to see it too, and issues a vidimus, a certified copy that declares “we have seen.” The judge, who never sees the original, relies on what the notary saw. The address in 33.24 is the common opening of medieval letters, “to all who shall see the present letters.” The description of the original in 33.25 is modelled on the style of such copies. The text is a pedagogical composition, not a quotation.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
33.16a Mercātor the-merchant nōtāriō to-the-notary vetus an-old prīvilēgium charter-of-privilege videndum to-be-inspected trādidit handed-over
33.16b Mercātor /merˈkaː.tor/ merchant.NOM.M.SG nōtāriō /noːˈtaː.ri.oː/ notary.DAT.M.SG vetus /ˈwe.tus/ old.ACC.N.SG prīvilēgium /priː.wiˈleː.ɡi.um/ privilege.ACC.N.SG videndum /wiˈden.dum/ see.GERUNDIVE.ACC.N.SG trādidit /ˈtraː.di.dit/ hand-over.3SG.PERF
33.17a Hoc this prīvilēgium charter inquit he-said iūdex a-judge in in aliā another cīvitāte city vidēre to-see dēbet must
33.17b Hoc /hok/ this.ACC.N.SG prīvilēgium /priː.wiˈleː.ɡi.um/ privilege.ACC.N.SG inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL aliā /ˈa.li.aː/ other.ABL.F.SG cīvitāte /kiː.wiˈtaː.te/ city.ABL.F.SG vidēre /wiˈdeː.re/ see.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES
33.18a Sed but sī if ipsās the-very litterās letter mīserō I-shall-have-sent eās it fortasse perhaps numquam never iterum again vidēbō I-shall-see
33.18b Sed /sed/ but.CONJ sī /siː/ if.CONJ ipsās /ˈip.saːs/ self.ACC.F.PL litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL mīserō /ˈmiː.se.roː/ send.1SG.FUTPERF eās /ˈe.aːs/ it.ACC.F.PL fortasse /forˈtas.se/ perhaps.ADV numquam /ˈnum.kʷam/ never.ADV iterum /ˈi.te.rum/ again.ADV vidēbō /wiˈdeː.boː/ see.1SG.FUT
33.19a Nōtārius the-notary litterās the-letter attentē attentively īnspexit examined et and sigillum the-seal integrum intact esse to-be vīdit saw
33.19b Nōtārius /noːˈtaː.ri.us/ notary.NOM.M.SG litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL attentē /atˈten.teː/ attentively.ADV īnspexit /iːnˈspek.sit/ examine.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ sigillum /siˈɡil.lum/ seal.ACC.N.SG integrum /ˈin.te.ɡrum/ intact.ACC.N.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF vīdit /ˈwiː.dit/ see.3SG.PERF
33.20a Nihil nothing ērāsum erased nihil nothing mūtātum altered videō I-see inquit he-said
33.20b Nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG ērāsum /eːˈraː.sum/ erase.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.N.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG mūtātum /muːˈtaː.tum/ change.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.N.SG videō /ˈwi.de.oː/ see.1SG.PRES inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES
33.21a Manus the-hand quoque also scrībae of-the-scribe vērē truly antīqua old esse to-be vidētur seems
33.21b Manus /ˈma.nus/ hand.NOM.F.SG quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV scrībae /ˈskriː.bae̯/ scribe.GEN.M.SG vērē /ˈweː.reː/ truly.ADV antīqua /anˈtiː.kʷa/ old.NOM.F.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS
33.22a Tum then duōs two testēs witnesses vocāvit he-called ut so-that ipsī they-themselves quoque also litterās the-letter vidērent might-see
33.22b Tum /tum/ then.ADV duōs /ˈdu.oːs/ two.ACC.M.PL testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.ACC.M.PL vocāvit /woˈkaː.wit/ call.3SG.PERF ut /ut/ so-that.CONJ ipsī /ˈip.siː/ self.NOM.M.PL quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL vidērent /wiˈdeː.rent/ see.3PL.IMPERF.SUBJ
33.23a Testēs the-witnesses postquam after litterās the-letter vīdērunt they-saw nihil in-no-way dubitāvērunt doubted
33.23b Testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL postquam /ˈpost.kʷam/ after.CONJ litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL vīdērunt /wiːˈdeː.runt/ see.3PL.PERF nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG dubitāvērunt /du.bi.taːˈweː.runt/ doubt.3PL.PERF
33.24a Deinde then nōtārius the-notary exemplum a-copy scrīpsit wrote quod which sīc thus incipit begins Ūniversīs to-all praesentēs the-present litterās letters vīsūrīs who-shall-see salūtem greeting
33.24b Deinde /ˈdei̯n.de/ then.ADV nōtārius /noːˈtaː.ri.us/ notary.NOM.M.SG exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG scrīpsit /ˈskriːp.sit/ write.3SG.PERF quod /kʷod/ which.NOM.N.SG sīc /siːk/ thus.ADV incipit /ˈin.ki.pit/ begin.3SG.PRES Ūniversīs /uː.niˈwer.siːs/ all.DAT.M.PL praesentēs /prae̯ˈsen.teːs/ present.ACC.F.PL litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL vīsūrīs /wiːˈsuː.riːs/ see.FUT.PART.DAT.M.PL salūtem /saˈluː.tem/ greeting.ACC.F.SG
33.25a Vīdimus we-have-seen litterās the-letter sānās sound et and integrās whole nōn not vitiātās damaged nec nor in in aliquā any suī of-itself parte part suspectās suspect
33.25b Vīdimus /ˈwiː.di.mus/ see.1PL.PERF litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL sānās /ˈsaː.naːs/ sound.ACC.F.PL et /et/ and.CONJ integrās /ˈin.te.ɡraːs/ whole.ACC.F.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vitiātās /wi.tiˈaː.taːs/ damage.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.F.PL nec /nek/ nor.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL aliquā /ˈa.li.kʷaː/ some.ABL.F.SG suī /ˈsu.iː/ self.GEN.SG parte /ˈpar.te/ part.ABL.F.SG suspectās /susˈpek.taːs/ suspect.ACC.F.PL
33.26a Exemplum the-copy cum with ipsīs the-very litterīs letter contulit he-compared ut in-order-to vidēret see num whether cōnsentīrent they-agreed
33.26b Exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG cum /kum/ with.PREP+ABL ipsīs /ˈip.siːs/ self.ABL.F.PL litterīs /ˈlit.te.riːs/ letter.ABL.F.PL contulit /ˈkon.tu.lit/ compare.3SG.PERF ut /ut/ so-that.CONJ vidēret /wiˈdeː.ret/ see.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ num /num/ whether.CONJ cōnsentīrent /koːn.senˈtiː.rent/ agree.3PL.IMPERF.SUBJ
33.27a Iūdex the-judge quī who ipsās the-very litterās letter numquam never vīderat had-seen exemplō the-copy nōtāriī of-the-notary crēdidit believed
33.27b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG ipsās /ˈip.saːs/ self.ACC.F.PL litterās /ˈlit.te.raːs/ letter.ACC.F.PL numquam /ˈnum.kʷam/ never.ADV vīderat /ˈwiː.de.rat/ see.3SG.PLUPERF exemplō /ekˈsem.ploː/ copy.DAT.N.SG nōtāriī /noːˈtaː.ri.iː/ notary.GEN.M.SG crēdidit /ˈkreː.di.dit/ believe.3SG.PERF
33.28a Quod what nōtārius the-notary vīdit saw et and testēs the-witnesses cōnfirmant confirm id that prō as vērō true habendum to-be-held vidētur seems
33.28b Quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG nōtārius /noːˈtaː.ri.us/ notary.NOM.M.SG vīdit /ˈwiː.dit/ see.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL cōnfirmant /koːnˈfir.mant/ confirm.3PL.PRES id /id/ that.NOM.N.SG prō /proː/ as.PREP+ABL vērō /ˈweː.roː/ true.ABL.N.SG habendum /haˈben.dum/ hold.GERUNDIVE.NOM.N.SG vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS
33.29a Adversārius the-opponent exemplum the-copy falsum false esse to-be clāmāvit shouted sed but nēmō no-one quicquam anything falsī of-false vīderat had-seen
33.29b Adversārius /ad.werˈsaː.ri.us/ opponent.NOM.M.SG exemplum /ekˈsem.plum/ copy.ACC.N.SG falsum /ˈfal.sum/ false.ACC.N.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF clāmāvit /klaːˈmaː.wit/ shout.3SG.PERF sed /sed/ but.CONJ nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG quicquam /ˈkʷik.kʷam/ anything.ACC.N.SG falsī /ˈfal.siː/ false.GEN.N.SG vīderat /ˈwiː.de.rat/ see.3SG.PLUPERF
33.30a Itaque and-so iūdex the-judge prō for mercātōre the-merchant prōnūntiāvit gave-judgment et and mercātor the-merchant prīvilēgium charter suum his salvum safe domī at-home iterum again vīdit saw
33.30b Itaque /ˈi.ta.kʷe/ therefore.ADV iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG prō /proː/ for.PREP+ABL mercātōre /mer.kaːˈtoː.re/ merchant.ABL.M.SG prōnūntiāvit /proː.nuːn.tiˈaː.wit/ pronounce.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ mercātor /merˈkaː.tor/ merchant.NOM.M.SG prīvilēgium /priː.wiˈleː.ɡi.um/ privilege.ACC.N.SG suum /ˈsu.um/ his-own.ACC.N.SG salvum /ˈsal.wum/ safe.ACC.N.SG domī /ˈdo.miː/ home.LOC.F.SG iterum /ˈi.te.rum/ again.ADV vīdit /ˈwiː.dit/ see.3SG.PERF
Part B: Natural Sentences
33.16 Mercātor nōtāriō vetus prīvilēgium videndum trādidit. → “A merchant handed an old charter of privilege to a notary for inspection.”
33.17 “Hoc prīvilēgium,” inquit, “iūdex in aliā cīvitāte vidēre dēbet.” → “‘A judge in another city,’ he said, ‘has to see this charter.’”
33.18 “Sed sī ipsās litterās mīserō, eās fortasse numquam iterum vidēbō.” → “‘But if I send the original, I may never see it again.’”
33.19 Nōtārius litterās attentē īnspexit et sigillum integrum esse vīdit. → “The notary examined the document closely and saw that the seal was intact.”
33.20 “Nihil ērāsum, nihil mūtātum videō,” inquit. → “‘I see nothing erased and nothing altered,’ he said.”
33.21 “Manus quoque scrībae vērē antīqua esse vidētur.” → “‘The scribe’s hand, too, looks genuinely old.’”
33.22 Tum duōs testēs vocāvit, ut ipsī quoque litterās vidērent. → “Then he called two witnesses, so that they too could see the document.”
33.23 Testēs, postquam litterās vīdērunt, nihil dubitāvērunt. → “Once the witnesses had seen the document, they had no doubts at all.”
33.24 Deinde nōtārius exemplum scrīpsit, quod sīc incipit: “Ūniversīs praesentēs litterās vīsūrīs salūtem.” → “Then the notary wrote a copy, which begins: ‘To all who shall see the present letters, greeting.’”
33.25 “Vīdimus litterās sānās et integrās, nōn vitiātās nec in aliquā suī parte suspectās.” → “‘We have seen the letter, sound and whole, not damaged and not suspect in any part.’”
33.26 Exemplum cum ipsīs litterīs contulit, ut vidēret num cōnsentīrent. → “He compared the copy with the original to see whether they agreed.”
33.27 Iūdex, quī ipsās litterās numquam vīderat, exemplō nōtāriī crēdidit. → “The judge, who had never seen the original, trusted the notary’s copy.”
33.28 “Quod nōtārius vīdit et testēs cōnfirmant, id prō vērō habendum vidētur.” → “‘What the notary has seen and the witnesses confirm must, it seems, be taken as true.’”
33.29 Adversārius exemplum falsum esse clāmāvit, sed nēmō quicquam falsī vīderat. → “The opposing party protested that the copy was forged, but no one had seen anything false in it.”
33.30 Itaque iūdex prō mercātōre prōnūntiāvit, et mercātor prīvilēgium suum salvum domī iterum vīdit. → “So the judge gave judgment for the merchant, and the merchant saw his charter again, safe at home.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
33.16 Mercātor nōtāriō vetus prīvilēgium videndum trādidit.
33.17 “Hoc prīvilēgium,” inquit, “iūdex in aliā cīvitāte vidēre dēbet.”
33.18 “Sed sī ipsās litterās mīserō, eās fortasse numquam iterum vidēbō.”
33.19 Nōtārius litterās attentē īnspexit et sigillum integrum esse vīdit.
33.20 “Nihil ērāsum, nihil mūtātum videō,” inquit.
33.21 “Manus quoque scrībae vērē antīqua esse vidētur.”
33.22 Tum duōs testēs vocāvit, ut ipsī quoque litterās vidērent.
33.23 Testēs, postquam litterās vīdērunt, nihil dubitāvērunt.
33.24 Deinde nōtārius exemplum scrīpsit, quod sīc incipit: “Ūniversīs praesentēs litterās vīsūrīs salūtem.”
33.25 “Vīdimus litterās sānās et integrās, nōn vitiātās nec in aliquā suī parte suspectās.”
33.26 Exemplum cum ipsīs litterīs contulit, ut vidēret num cōnsentīrent.
33.27 Iūdex, quī ipsās litterās numquam vīderat, exemplō nōtāriī crēdidit.
33.28 “Quod nōtārius vīdit et testēs cōnfirmant, id prō vērō habendum vidētur.”
33.29 Adversārius exemplum falsum esse clāmāvit, sed nēmō quicquam falsī vīderat.
33.30 Itaque iūdex prō mercātōre prōnūntiāvit, et mercātor prīvilēgium suum salvum domī iterum vīdit.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The narrative runs through the forms of videō. Present: videō (33.20). Future: vidēbō (33.18). Perfect: vīdit (33.19, 33.28, 33.30), vīdērunt (33.23), vīdimus (33.25). Pluperfect: vīderat (33.27, 33.29). Infinitive: vidēre (33.17). Subjunctive: vidērent (33.22), vidēret (33.26). Passive: vidētur (33.21, 33.28). Gerundive: videndum (33.16). Future participle: vīsūrīs (33.24).
The constructions. Accusative and infinitive after vīdit: sigillum integrum esse vīdit, “he saw that the seal was intact” (33.19). Indirect question: ut vidēret num cōnsentīrent, “to see whether they agreed” (33.26); num introduces the question and cōnsentīrent is subjunctive. Personal videor: manus … antīqua esse vidētur (33.21), with antīqua agreeing with manus in the nominative; id prō vērō habendum vidētur (33.28), “that seems to be something to be held as true.” Purpose: ut ipsī quoque litterās vidērent (33.22). Gerundive of purpose with a verb of handing over: prīvilēgium videndum trādidit (33.16).
Other points. Litterae in the plural means one letter or document, so ipsās litterās (33.18) is “the original document.” Mīserō (33.18) is future perfect: Latin is strict about time, and the sending must be complete before the not-seeing begins. In 33.24 the address is in the dative, Ūniversīs … vīsūrīs, “to all who will see,” and salūtem is the accusative of the greeting with an unexpressed verb (dīcit or mittit). Suī in 33.25 is the genitive of the reflexive, “of itself.” After nec, classical Latin would say in ūllā suī parte; aliquā here follows the habit of the medieval chancery formulas. Crēdere takes a dative (exemplō, 33.27). Quicquam falsī (33.29) is a partitive genitive, “anything of falsehood,” like quid dētrīmentī in Section F. Domī (33.30) is a locative, “at home.” Nihil in 33.23 is an adverbial accusative, “in no respect.”
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The long ī of the perfect: vīdī, vīdit, vīdimus, vīderat, vīdērunt. The present system has a short i: videō, vidēs, vidēre, vidētur. Hear the difference in vidēmus /wiˈdeː.mus/ and vīdimus /ˈwiː.di.mus/.
The e of vidē- is long except before another vowel (videō, videam) and before nt or nd (vident, videntur, videndum).
Vīsum and vīsūrus have a voiceless s: /ˈwiː.sum/, /wiːˈsuː.rus/.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all legal citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal phrases in running English text (qui tacet consentire videtur, vidimus) are likewise printed without macrons.
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūdex, vidēre). Many editions print i and u throughout (iudex, uidere). Maiōribus has a doubled consonantal i in pronunciation: /majˈjoː.ri.bus/.
Quicquam and quidquam are the same word (Lesson 31). Nōtārius has two long vowels: /noːˈtaː.ri.us/. Sigillum, “seal,” has a short first i.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³³ ◊ᵛⁱᵈᵉᵒ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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