← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁴ ◊ᶠᵃᶜⁱᵒ
Welcome to Lesson 34 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the verb faciō, facere, fēcī, factum, “to do, to make.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 32nd among all Latin words. It is the verb of the act itself, and the law is largely about acts: who did what, with what mind, and with what right. Lawyers meet it in de facto and ipso facto, in actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, in the writ of fieri facias, in the word fiat, and in the English words fact, feasance, malfeasance and facsimile.
What does faciō mean in legal Latin?
Faciō means “I do” and “I make.” With an object it names the thing done or made: testāmentum facere, “to make a will”; fūrtum facere, “to commit theft”; damnum facere, “to cause loss.” With two accusatives it means “to make someone something”: fīlium hērēdem facere, “to make one’s son heir.” With ut and the subjunctive it means “to bring it about that.” Used absolutely, with an adverb or a phrase, it means “to act”: contrā lēgem facere, “to act against the law”; in fraudem lēgis facere, “to act in evasion of the law.”
The passive of faciō is a separate verb, fīō, fierī, factus sum, “to be done, to be made, to become, to happen.” Fit means “it is done, it happens”; fīat means “let it be done.” Only the perfect system uses factus: factum est, “it was done.” The neuter participle factum, “a thing done,” became the noun for “deed” and “fact.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English uses two verbs, “do” and “make,” where Latin uses one. Latin has no auxiliary “do”: “Did he do it?” is simply fēcitne?, and “I do not know” is nesciō, with no form of faciō at all. And English has no single verb that is the passive of “do” and “make” and also means “become”: Latin fīō is all three.
Etymology: faciō goes back to an Indo-European root meaning “to put, to set.” It is related to Greek τίθημι, “I put,” to German tun and to English “do.” Its compounds change the a to i or e: cōnficiō, “complete”; perficiō, “accomplish”; efficiō, “bring about”; afficiō, “affect”; with the perfect participles cōnfectus, perfectus, effectus, affectus. From these come English “perfect,” “effect,” “affect,” “defect” and “infect.” The noun facultās, the adjective facilis, “easy (to do),” and the noun factiō, “a making, a party,” come from the same stem.
Key Takeaways
⚖ Faciō, facere, fēcī, factum is a third-conjugation -iō verb: faci- in the present, fēc- (with a long ē) in the perfect, fact- in the participle
⚖ Its passive is fīō, fierī, factus sum, “be done, be made, become, happen”: fit, “it is done”; fīat, “let it be done”
⚖ Faciō takes an object (testāmentum facere), two accusatives (hērēdem facere), ut + subjunctive (“bring it about that”), or an adverbial phrase (contrā lēgem facere)
⚖ The imperative is the short form fac: fac ut, “see that, make sure that”
⚖ Factum, “a thing done,” is the source of the law’s “fact”: ignōrantia factī, dē factō, ipsō factō
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faciō /ˈfa.ki.oː/: three syllables, stress on the first. The a and the i are short; the final ō is long. The c is always /k/, as in “cat,” never /s/ or /tʃ/.
facere /ˈfa.ke.re/: stress on the first syllable, as in every third-conjugation infinitive. Do not say “fa-KAY-re.”
fēcī /ˈfeː.kiː/: in the perfect the vowel changes and is long: fa- becomes fē-. Fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/, “he did,” and facit /ˈfa.kit/, “he does,” differ only in this vowel.
factum /ˈfak.tum/: the a is short. Compare āctum /ˈaːk.tum/ from agō, where the a is long.
fīō /ˈfiː.oː/, fīat /ˈfiː.at/, fīunt /ˈfiː.unt/: the ī of fīō is long even before another vowel, an exception to the usual rule. It is short in fit /fit/ and before -er-: fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/, fierem /ˈfi.e.rem/.
fac /fak/: one syllable. The imperative of faciō, like those of dīcō (dīc), dūcō (dūc) and ferō (fer), has lost its final e.
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34.1a Quid what facis are-you-doing
34.1b Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG facis /ˈfa.kis/ do.2SG.PRES
34.2a Testāmentum a-will fēcit he-made
34.2b Testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.ACC.N.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ make.3SG.PERF
34.3a Fīat let-be-done iūstitia justice
34.3b Fīat /ˈfiː.at/ be-done.3SG.PRES.SUBJ iūstitia /juːsˈti.ti.a/ justice.NOM.F.SG
34.4a Ego I nihil nothing fēcī did
34.4b Ego /ˈe.ɡo/ I.NOM.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG fēcī /ˈfeː.kiː/ do.1SG.PERF
34.5a Cūr why hoc this fēcistī did-you-do
34.5b Cūr /kuːr/ why.ADV hoc /hok/ this.ACC.N.SG fēcistī /feːˈkis.tiː/ do.2SG.PERF
34.6a Reus the-defendant negat denies sē himself fūrtum theft fēcisse to-have-committed
34.6b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG negat /ˈne.ɡat/ deny.3SG.PRES sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG fūrtum /ˈfuːr.tum/ theft.ACC.N.SG fēcisse /feːˈkis.se/ do.PERF.INF
34.7a Hērēs the-heir cōram in-the-presence-of nōtāriō a-notary inventārium an-inventory fēcit made
34.7b Hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG cōram /ˈkoː.ram/ before.PREP+ABL nōtāriō /noːˈtaː.ri.oː/ notary.ABL.M.SG inventārium /in.wenˈtaː.ri.um/ inventory.ACC.N.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ make.3SG.PERF
34.8a Pater the-father in in testāmentō his-will fīlium his-son hērēdem heir fēcit made
34.8b Pater /ˈpa.ter/ father.NOM.M.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL testāmentō /tes.taːˈmen.toː/ will.ABL.N.SG fīlium /ˈfiː.li.um/ son.ACC.M.SG hērēdem /heːˈreː.dem/ heir.ACC.M.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ make.3SG.PERF
34.9a Iūdex the-judge fēcit brought-it-about ut that dēbitor the-debtor pecūniam the-money solveret should-pay
34.9b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ make.3SG.PERF ut /ut/ that.CONJ dēbitor /ˈdeː.bi.tor/ debtor.NOM.M.SG pecūniam /peˈkuː.ni.am/ money.ACC.F.SG solveret /ˈsol.we.ret/ pay.3SG.IMPERF.SUBJ
34.10a Cavē take-care nē that-not quid anything contrā against lēgem the-law faciās you-do
34.10b Cavē /ˈka.weː/ beware.2SG.PRES.IMPER nē /neː/ lest.CONJ quid /kʷid/ anything.ACC.N.SG contrā /ˈkon.traː/ against.PREP+ACC lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG faciās /ˈfa.ki.aːs/ do.2SG.PRES.SUBJ
34.11a Factum the-deed cuique to-each-person suum his-own nōn not adversāriō to-the-opponent nocēre to-harm dēbet ought
34.11b Factum /ˈfak.tum/ deed.NOM.N.SG cuique /ˈkui̯.kʷe/ each.DAT.M.SG suum /ˈsu.um/ his-own.NOM.N.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV adversāriō /ad.werˈsaː.ri.oː/ opponent.DAT.M.SG nocēre /noˈkeː.re/ harm.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES
34.12a Āctus the-act nōn not facit makes reum guilty nisi unless mēns the-mind sit be rea guilty
34.12b Āctus /ˈaːk.tus/ act.NOM.M.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV facit /ˈfa.kit/ make.3SG.PRES reum /ˈre.um/ guilty.ACC.M.SG nisi /ˈni.si/ unless.CONJ mēns /meːns/ mind.NOM.F.SG sit /sit/ be.3SG.PRES.SUBJ rea /ˈre.a/ guilty.NOM.F.SG
34.13a Nēmō no-one damnum loss facit causes nisi except quī one-who id that fēcit has-done quod which facere to-do iūs the-right nōn not habet he-has
34.13b Nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG damnum /ˈdam.num/ loss.ACC.N.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ make.3SG.PRES nisi /ˈni.si/ except.CONJ quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ do.3SG.PERF quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF iūs /juːs/ right.ACC.N.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV habet /ˈha.bet/ have.3SG.PRES
34.14a Rēgula the-rule est is iūris of-law quidem indeed ignōrantiam ignorance cuique to-each-person nocēre to-harm factī of-fact vērō but ignōrantiam ignorance nōn not nocēre to-harm
34.14b Rēgula /ˈreː.ɡu.la/ rule.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES iūris /ˈjuː.ris/ law.GEN.N.SG quidem /ˈkʷi.dem/ indeed.ADV ignōrantiam /iŋ.noːˈran.ti.am/ ignorance.ACC.F.SG cuique /ˈkui̯.kʷe/ each.DAT.M.SG nocēre /noˈkeː.re/ harm.PRES.INF factī /ˈfak.tiː/ fact.GEN.N.SG vērō /ˈweː.roː/ but.ADV ignōrantiam /iŋ.noːˈran.ti.am/ ignorance.ACC.F.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV nocēre /noˈkeː.re/ harm.PRES.INF
34.15a Nōn not vidētur is-held vim force facere to-use quī one-who iūre right suō his-own ūtitur uses et and ordināriā by-an-ordinary āctiōne action experītur proceeds-at-law
34.15b Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS vim /wim/ force.ACC.F.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ make.PRES.INF quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG iūre /ˈjuː.re/ right.ABL.N.SG suō /ˈsu.oː/ his-own.ABL.N.SG ūtitur /ˈuː.ti.tur/ use.3SG.PRES.DEP et /et/ and.CONJ ordināriā /or.diˈnaː.ri.aː/ ordinary.ABL.F.SG āctiōne /aːk.tiˈoː.ne/ action.ABL.F.SG experītur /eks.peˈriː.tur/ try.3SG.PRES.DEP
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34.1 Quid facis? → “What are you doing?”
34.2 Testāmentum fēcit. → “He made a will.”
34.3 Fīat iūstitia. → “Let justice be done.” (the first half of the maxim fiat iustitia, ruat caelum)
34.4 Ego nihil fēcī. → “I did nothing.”
34.5 Cūr hoc fēcistī? → “Why did you do this?”
34.6 Reus negat sē fūrtum fēcisse. → “The defendant denies that he committed theft.”
34.7 Hērēs cōram nōtāriō inventārium fēcit. → “The heir made an inventory in the presence of a notary.”
34.8 Pater in testāmentō fīlium hērēdem fēcit. → “In his will the father made his son his heir.”
34.9 Iūdex fēcit ut dēbitor pecūniam solveret. → “The judge made the debtor pay the money.”
34.10 Cavē nē quid contrā lēgem faciās. → “Take care not to do anything against the law.”
34.11 Factum cuique suum, nōn adversāriō, nocēre dēbet. → “A person’s own act should harm himself, not his opponent.” (Paul, Digest 50.17.155 pr.)
34.12 Āctus nōn facit reum nisi mēns sit rea. → “The act does not make a person guilty unless the mind is guilty.” (maxim of the common law)
34.13 Nēmō damnum facit, nisi quī id fēcit, quod facere iūs nōn habet. → “No one causes loss except one who has done what he had no right to do.” (Digest 50.17.151)
34.14 Rēgula est iūris quidem ignōrantiam cuique nocēre, factī vērō ignōrantiam nōn nocēre. → “It is a rule that ignorance of law harms everyone, but ignorance of fact does not.” (Paul, Digest 22.6.9 pr.)
34.15 Nōn vidētur vim facere, quī iūre suō ūtitur et ordināriā āctiōne experītur. → “One who exercises his own right and sues by an ordinary action is not held to use force.” (Paul, Digest 50.17.155.1)
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34.1 Quid facis?
34.2 Testāmentum fēcit.
34.3 Fīat iūstitia.
34.4 Ego nihil fēcī.
34.5 Cūr hoc fēcistī?
34.6 Reus negat sē fūrtum fēcisse.
34.7 Hērēs cōram nōtāriō inventārium fēcit.
34.8 Pater in testāmentō fīlium hērēdem fēcit.
34.9 Iūdex fēcit ut dēbitor pecūniam solveret.
34.10 Cavē nē quid contrā lēgem faciās.
34.11 Factum cuique suum, nōn adversāriō, nocēre dēbet.
34.12 Āctus nōn facit reum nisi mēns sit rea.
34.13 Nēmō damnum facit, nisi quī id fēcit, quod facere iūs nōn habet.
34.14 Rēgula est iūris quidem ignōrantiam cuique nocēre, factī vērō ignōrantiam nōn nocēre.
34.15 Nōn vidētur vim facere, quī iūre suō ūtitur et ordināriā āctiōne experītur.
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These are the grammar rules for faciō in Latin:
1. Principal parts. Faciō, facere, fēcī, factum: third conjugation, -iō type, like capiō and accipiō. The present stem is faci- (faciō, faciunt, faciam), shortened to fac- before e and in the imperative fac (facere, facerem), the perfect stem fēc- with a long ē, the participle stem fact- with a short a. In the glosses of this lesson the active forms are glossed under the root do or make, as the sense requires, and the forms of fīō under be-done.
2. The present active: faciō, facis (34.1), facit (34.12, 34.13), facimus, facitis, faciunt. Imperative: fac (34.27), facite. The short imperative fac has lost its final e, as have dīc, dūc and fer. Future: faciam, faciēs, faciet … Imperfect: faciēbam, faciēbās, faciēbat … Present infinitive: facere (34.13, 34.15, 34.30).
3. The present subjunctive: faciam, faciās (34.10), faciat (34.16), faciāmus, faciātis, faciant. Imperfect subjunctive: facerem, facerēs, faceret …
4. The perfect active: fēcī (34.4, 34.18, 34.21), fēcistī (34.5, 34.20), fēcit (34.2, 34.7, 34.8, 34.9, 34.13, 34.17, 34.25), fēcimus, fēcistis, fēcērunt. Pluperfect fēceram … Perfect infinitive fēcisse (34.6, 34.26, 34.28). Facit, “he does,” and fēcit, “he did,” differ only in the stem vowel: short a in the present, long ē in the perfect.
5. The passive: fīō. Faciō has no passive forms of its own in the present system. Their place is taken by fīō, fierī, factus sum, “be done, be made, become, happen.” Present fīō, fīs, fit, (fīmus, fītis), fīunt; subjunctive fīam, fīās, fīat (34.3); imperfect fīēbam; imperfect subjunctive fierem; infinitive fierī (34.22, 34.25, 34.30; F.3). The perfect system is formed from faciō: factus, -a, -um est, “was made, became” (34.29). The ī of fīō is long even before a vowel; it is short in fit and before -er- (fierī, fierem).
6. Faciō with an object: the thing done or made. Testāmentum facere, “to make a will” (34.2); fūrtum facere, “to commit theft” (34.6); inventārium facere, “to make an inventory” (34.7); damnum facere, “to cause loss” (34.13); vim facere, “to use force” (34.15); aedificium facere, “to put up a building” (34.16). Latin uses faciō where English chooses among “make,” “do,” “commit,” “cause” and “put up.”
7. Faciō with two accusatives: “to make someone something.” Fīlium hērēdem fēcit, “he made his son heir” (34.8). In the passive the second accusative becomes a nominative with fīō: fīlius hērēs factus est, “the son was made heir”; rīpa lībera facta est, “the bank became free” (34.29).
8. Faciō ut + subjunctive: “to bring it about that, to cause to.” Iūdex fēcit ut dēbitor pecūniam solveret (34.9). The subjunctive is imperfect because fēcit is past. The imperative fac ut means “see to it that, make sure that” (34.27). Fac nē is the negative, “see that … not.”
9. Faciō used absolutely, with an adverb or phrase: “to act.” Contrā lēgem facere, “to act against the law,” and in fraudem lēgis facere, “to act in evasion of the law” (34.23, 34.24, 34.26; F.1–F.2). Bene facere, “to act well, to do good”; male facere, “to do wrong.”
10. The noun factum. The neuter of the perfect participle is used as a noun: factum, “a deed, an act, a fact” (34.11). Its genitive factī appears in ignōrantia factī, “ignorance of fact” (34.14), set against ignōrantia iūris, “ignorance of law.” The phrases dē factō, “in fact,” and ipsō factō, “by the act itself,” use its ablative.
11. Fit and impersonal fīō. Fit, “it is done, it happens,” is used impersonally: fraus lēgī fit, “an evasion of the law is committed” (F.3); quod contrā lēgem fit, “what is done against the law” (F.4). Fierī potest ut …, “it can happen that …”
12. Mood and tense. In 34.12, sit is subjunctive because the maxim states a general condition (nisi … sit). In 34.10, cavē nē … faciās is a negative command in a nē-clause after cavē. In 34.16, prohibet nē quis … faciat is a clause of prevention: after prohibeō, Latin uses nē with the subjunctive or an accusative and infinitive.
The forms of faciō and fīō used in this lesson: facis, fēcit, fīat, fēcī, fēcistī, fēcisse, faciās, factum, facit, facere, factī, faciat, fierī, fac, facta est; and in Section F, facit and the forms of fīō fit and fierī.
Common Mistakes
Using the present stem in the perfect: ✗ facit for “he did.” The perfect is fēcit, with a long ē.
Making a passive from faciō in the present: ✗ facitur, ✗ facī. The passive is fit, fierī. Only the perfect system is built on factus: factum est, “it was done.”
Writing ✗ face for the imperative. Classical Latin says fac. (Face is found in early Latin and in some medieval texts, but not in classical prose.)
Translating every faciō as “make.” Fūrtum facere is “to commit theft,” not “to make a theft”; vim facere is “to use force”; contrā lēgem facere is “to act against the law.”
Confusing factum with āctum. Both mean “done,” but factum has a short a and comes from faciō, while āctum has a long ā and comes from agō. In legal Latin factum is the deed or fact; āctum is a thing transacted, and ācta are records.
Forgetting the nominative with fīō: ✗ fīlium hērēdem factus est. With fīō and factus, the predicate agrees with the subject in the nominative: fīlius hērēs factus est.
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Ignorantia facti, ignorantia iuris
Paul’s rule (Digest 22.6.9 pr.; 34.14), that ignorance of law harms everyone but ignorance of fact does not, stands behind the modern maxim ignorantia iuris non excusat, “ignorance of the law is no excuse.” The Roman jurists were not wholly rigid about it. The same fragment goes on to allow exceptions, for persons under twenty-five and, in certain cases, for women. The distinction between a mistake of fact and a mistake of law still runs through criminal and civil law in both the common-law and the civil-law worlds.
Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea
“The act does not make a person guilty unless the mind is guilty” (34.12). By the time of Sir Edward Coke in the early seventeenth century the maxim was well established in the common law, and the modern terms actus reus and mens rea are taken from it. Its Latin uses faciō with two accusatives: the act does not make (facit) the person guilty (reum).
Nemo damnum facit
“No one causes loss except one who has done what he had no right to do” (Digest 50.17.151; 34.13). Together with Gaius’s rule from Lesson 33 (nullus videtur dolo facere qui suo iure utitur) and Paul’s rule on force (Digest 50.17.155.1; 34.15), it forms a group of Roman rules about the lawful exercise of rights. Their modern descendant is the maxim qui iure suo utitur neminem laedit, and their modern limit the civil-law doctrine of the abuse of rights.
Factum cuique suum
Paul’s rule (Digest 50.17.155 pr.; 34.11), “a person’s own act should harm himself, not his opponent,” is a principle of procedure and of fairness: what a party has done may be held against him, but must not prejudice his opponent. It belongs to the same family of ideas as the later maxim nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans.
Fiat
Fīat, “let it be done,” is the formula of command and authorisation. In English usage a fiat is an order or decree, and in older English practice the word was written on a petition or document to show that the authority had approved it. The maxim fiat iustitia, ruat caelum, “let justice be done, though the heavens fall” (34.3), was quoted by English judges, and it remains a byword for doing what the law requires whatever the consequences.
Fieri facias
The common-law writ of execution against a debtor’s goods was called fieri facias, often shortened to fi. fa. The words are the core of the writ’s Latin command to the sheriff: “that you cause to be made” (fierī faciās) the sum owed out of the debtor’s goods and chattels. The phrase joins the two halves of the verb: faciās, “that you cause,” and fierī, “to be made.” The writ is a living example of faciō with an infinitive in the sense “cause to happen.”
De facto, ipso facto, factum
De facto, “in fact,” is set against de iure, “in law”: a de facto government holds power whether or not it holds it rightly. Ipso facto means “by that very act”: a contract that is void ipso facto needs no court to set it aside. In Canadian appellate practice the written argument that each party files is called a factum. In older English law a factum was a deed, a thing done and sealed. The plea non est factum, “it is not his deed,” is still open to a person who signed a document fundamentally different from the one he thought he was signing.
Testamenti factio
The Roman lawyers spoke of testāmentī factiō, “the making of a will,” and used the phrase for the legal capacity to make a will or to take under one. Testāmentum facere (34.2) is the ordinary Latin for making a will, and hērēdem facere (34.8) for appointing an heir.
In fraudem legis
The passage in Section F gives the Roman law’s classic definition of evasion of the law, fraus legis. Its modern descendants are the doctrines against evasion and circumvention in private international law, tax law and company law: a transaction that keeps the letter of a rule while defeating its purpose may be treated as if it broke the rule outright.
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The following passage joins two consecutive fragments of the Digest, title 1.3, “On statutes, decrees of the senate and long custom.” The first is from Paul’s single book on the Lex Cincia, the law of 204 BC that limited gifts. The second is from the fourth book of Ulpian’s commentary on the Edict. Together they give the classic definition of the difference between breaking a law and evading it, and both are built on faciō and fīō.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Contrā against lēgem the-law facit acts quī he-who id that facit does quod which lēx the-law prohibet forbids
F.1b Contrā /ˈkon.traː/ against.PREP+ACC lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG prohibet /proˈhi.bet/ forbid.3SG.PRES
F.2a in in fraudem evasion vērō but quī he-who salvīs intact verbīs the-words lēgis of-the-law sententiam the-intention eius its circumvenit gets-round
F.2b in /in/ into.PREP+ACC fraudem /ˈfrau̯.dem/ fraud.ACC.F.SG vērō /ˈweː.roː/ but.ADV quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG salvīs /ˈsal.wiːs/ intact.ABL.N.PL verbīs /ˈwer.biːs/ word.ABL.N.PL lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ intention.ACC.F.SG eius /ˈej.jus/ it.GEN.F.SG circumvenit /kir.kumˈwe.nit/ circumvent.3SG.PRES
F.3a Fraus evasion enim for lēgī on-the-law fit is-committed ubi when quod what fierī to-be-done nōluit it-did-not-want fierī to-be-done autem however nōn not vetuit it-forbade id that fit is-done
F.3b Fraus /frau̯s/ fraud.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ lēgī /ˈleː.ɡiː/ law.DAT.F.SG fit /fit/ be-done.3SG.PRES ubi /ˈu.bi/ when.CONJ quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/ be-done.PRES.INF nōluit /ˈnoː.lu.it/ not-want.3SG.PERF fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/ be-done.PRES.INF autem /ˈau̯.tem/ however.CONJ nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vetuit /ˈwe.tu.it/ forbid.3SG.PERF id /id/ that.NOM.N.SG fit /fit/ be-done.3SG.PRES
F.4a et and quod as-much-as distat differs ῥητὸν the-letter ἀπὸ from διανοίας the-intention hoc so-much distat differs fraus evasion ab from eō that quod which contrā against lēgem the-law fit is-done
F.4b et /et/ and.CONJ quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG distat /ˈdis.tat/ differ.3SG.PRES ῥητὸν /rʰeːˈton/ word.NOM.N.SG(GREEK) ἀπὸ /aˈpo/ from.PREP+GEN(GREEK) διανοίας /di.aˈnoi̯.aːs/ intention.GEN.F.SG(GREEK) hoc /hok/ this.ACC.N.SG distat /ˈdis.tat/ differ.3SG.PRES fraus /frau̯s/ fraud.NOM.F.SG ab /ab/ from.PREP+ABL eō /ˈe.oː/ that.ABL.N.SG quod /kʷod/ which.NOM.N.SG contrā /ˈkon.traː/ against.PREP+ACC lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG fit /fit/ be-done.3SG.PRES
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Contra legem facit, qui id facit quod lex prohibet, in fraudem vero, qui salvis verbis legis sententiam eius circumvenit. Fraus enim legi fit, ubi quod fieri noluit, fieri autem non vetuit, id fit: et quod distat ῥητὸν ἀπὸ διανοίας, hoc distat fraus ab eo, quod contra legem fit.
→ “A person acts against a statute when he does what the statute forbids; he acts in evasion of it when, keeping to its words, he gets round its intention. For an evasion of a statute is committed when something is done which the statute did not want done but did not expressly forbid; and the difference between an evasion and an act against the statute is the difference between the letter and the meaning.”
— Paul, Digest 1.3.29 (from his single book on the Lex Cincia); Ulpian, Digest 1.3.30 (from book 4 of his commentary on the Edict)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Contra legem facit, qui id facit quod lex prohibet, in fraudem vero, qui salvis verbis legis sententiam eius circumvenit. Fraus enim legi fit, ubi quod fieri noluit, fieri autem non vetuit, id fit: et quod distat ῥητὸν ἀπὸ διανοίας, hoc distat fraus ab eo, quod contra legem fit.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Contrā lēgem facit and in fraudem (lēgis) facit are faciō used absolutely, “to act,” with a phrase that says how. In the second clause facit is not repeated: in fraudem vērō [facit], quī … The pronoun id is the antecedent of quod in both fragments: id facit quod lēx prohibet, “does that which the law forbids.” Salvīs verbīs lēgis is an ablative absolute, “the words of the law being kept safe.” Eius refers to the law (lēx), not to the person. In Ulpian’s sentence fit is used three times: fraus lēgī fit, “an evasion of the law is committed”; quod … id fit, “that is done which …”; and quod contrā lēgem fit, “what is done against the law.” Lēgī is a dative of disadvantage: the evasion is done to the law. Fierī nōluit and fierī nōn vetuit have the law as their unexpressed subject: the law “did not want it to be done, but did not forbid it to be done.” Quod distat … hoc distat is a correlative pair, “by as much as … by so much.” The Greek phrase ῥητὸν ἀπὸ διανοίας, “the wording from the intention,” was a technical pair of Greek rhetoric, which the Roman lawyers knew from their training; Latin authors render it as scriptum and sententia, or verba and voluntās.
Commentary. Paul wrote on the Lex Cincia, a law that restricted gifts above a certain amount. A law of that kind invites evasion: the donor and the recipient dress up a gift as something else. Paul’s definition separates two ways of defeating a statute: breaking it openly, and keeping its words while defeating its purpose. The compilers of the Digest set Ulpian’s sentence directly after Paul’s, so that it reads as an explanation of it. The Roman law answered evasion by treating it as a breach: what the statute wanted to prevent is prevented, whatever form the transaction takes. Modern courts face the same question whenever a contract, a company structure or a tax arrangement is shaped to fit the words of a rule while escaping its purpose. The spelling in F-B and F-C is that of the standard edition, without macrons. Some online editions transliterate the Greek as hryton apo dianoias.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
The protocol assigns narrative or news to verbs. This is a court report in the manner of a news item. A city statute forbids anyone to put up a building near the river. A rich man named Titius, the stock name of the Roman jurists’ examples, keeps to the words of the statute and defeats its purpose: he puts no building on the bank, but sets a large ship there and lives in it. The judge reads Paul’s definition from Section F aloud (34.23–34.24) and decides the case on it. The text is a pedagogical composition, not a quotation; only the words of Paul in 34.23–34.24 are authentic.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
34.16a Lēx the-law cīvitātis of-the-city prohibet forbids nē that-not quis anyone prope near flūmen the-river aedificium a-building faciat should-put-up
34.16b Lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG cīvitātis /kiː.wiˈtaː.tis/ city.GEN.F.SG prohibet /proˈhi.bet/ forbid.3SG.PRES nē /neː/ lest.CONJ quis /kʷis/ anyone.NOM.M.SG prope /ˈpro.pe/ near.PREP+ACC flūmen /ˈfluː.men/ river.ACC.N.SG aedificium /ae̯.diˈfi.ki.um/ building.ACC.N.SG faciat /ˈfa.ki.at/ make.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
34.17a Titius Titius tamen however homō a-man dīves rich magnam a-large nāvem ship in on rīpā the-bank posuit placed et and in in eā it domum a-home sibi for-himself fēcit made
34.17b Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG tamen /ˈta.men/ however.ADV homō /ˈho.moː/ man.NOM.M.SG dīves /ˈdiː.wes/ rich.NOM.M.SG magnam /ˈmaŋ.nam/ large.ACC.F.SG nāvem /ˈnaː.wem/ ship.ACC.F.SG in /in/ on.PREP+ABL rīpā /ˈriː.paː/ bank.ABL.F.SG posuit /ˈpo.su.it/ place.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL eā /ˈe.aː/ it.ABL.F.SG domum /ˈdo.mum/ home.ACC.F.SG sibi /ˈsi.bi/ self.DAT.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ make.3SG.PERF
34.18a Aedificium a-building nōn not fēcī I-made inquit he-said nāvis a-ship enim for aedificium a-building nōn not est is
34.18b Aedificium /ae̯.diˈfi.ki.um/ building.ACC.N.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV fēcī /ˈfeː.kiː/ make.1SG.PERF inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES nāvis /ˈnaː.wis/ ship.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ aedificium /ae̯.diˈfi.ki.um/ building.NOM.N.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
34.19a Vīcīnī the-neighbours querēbantur complained Quid what facit is-doing iste that-fellow Lēgem the-law ēlūdit he-evades
34.19b Vīcīnī /wiːˈkiː.niː/ neighbour.NOM.M.PL querēbantur /kʷe.reːˈban.tur/ complain.3PL.IMPERF.DEP Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES iste /ˈis.te/ that.NOM.M.SG Lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG ēlūdit /eːˈluː.dit/ evade.3SG.PRES
34.20a Iūdex the-judge Titium Titius interrogāvit asked Quid what in on rīpā the-bank fēcistī have-you-done
34.20b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG Titium /ˈti.ti.um/ Titius.ACC.M.SG interrogāvit /in.ter.roˈɡaː.wit/ ask.3SG.PERF Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG in /in/ on.PREP+ABL rīpā /ˈriː.paː/ bank.ABL.F.SG fēcistī /feːˈkis.tiː/ do.2SG.PERF
34.21a Nihil nothing contrā against lēgem the-law fēcī I-have-done respondit answered Titius Titius lēx the-law enim for dē about nāvibus ships nihil nothing dīcit says
34.21b Nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG contrā /ˈkon.traː/ against.PREP+ACC lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG fēcī /ˈfeː.kiː/ do.1SG.PERF respondit /reˈspon.dit/ answer.3SG.PERF Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL nāvibus /ˈnaː.wi.bus/ ship.ABL.F.PL nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES
34.22a Advocātus the-advocate vīcīnōrum of-the-neighbours respondit replied Quod what lēx the-law vetat forbids fierī to-be-done nōn not dēbet ought etiam even sī if verba the-words lēgis of-the-law servantur are-kept
34.22b Advocātus /ad.woˈkaː.tus/ advocate.NOM.M.SG vīcīnōrum /wiː.kiːˈnoː.rum/ neighbour.GEN.M.PL respondit /reˈspon.dit/ answer.3SG.PERF Quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG vetat /ˈwe.tat/ forbid.3SG.PRES fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/ be-done.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES etiam /ˈe.ti.am/ even.ADV sī /siː/ if.CONJ verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.NOM.N.PL lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG servantur /serˈwan.tur/ keep.3PL.PRES.PASS
34.23a Iūdex the-judge verba the-words Paulī of-Paul recitāvit read-aloud Contrā against lēgem the-law facit acts quī he-who id that facit does quod which lēx the-law prohibet forbids
34.23b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL Paulī /ˈpau̯.liː/ Paul.GEN.M.SG recitāvit /re.kiˈtaː.wit/ read-aloud.3SG.PERF Contrā /ˈkon.traː/ against.PREP+ACC lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG prohibet /proˈhi.bet/ forbid.3SG.PRES
34.24a In in fraudem evasion vērō but facit acts inquit he-said quī he-who salvīs intact verbīs the-words lēgis of-the-law sententiam the-intention eius its circumvenit gets-round
34.24b In /in/ into.PREP+ACC fraudem /ˈfrau̯.dem/ fraud.ACC.F.SG vērō /ˈweː.roː/ but.ADV facit /ˈfa.kit/ do.3SG.PRES inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG salvīs /ˈsal.wiːs/ intact.ABL.N.PL verbīs /ˈwer.biːs/ word.ABL.N.PL lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ intention.ACC.F.SG eius /ˈej.jus/ it.GEN.F.SG circumvenit /kir.kumˈwe.nit/ circumvent.3SG.PRES
34.25a Titius Titius verba the-words lēgis of-the-law servāvit kept sed but id that fēcit he-did quod which lēx the-law fierī to-be-done nōluit did-not-want
34.25b Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG servāvit /serˈwaː.wit/ keep.3SG.PERF sed /sed/ but.CONJ id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ do.3SG.PERF quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/ be-done.PRES.INF nōluit /ˈnoː.lu.it/ not-want.3SG.PERF
34.26a Itaque and-so iūdex the-judge prōnūntiāvit declared Titium Titius in in fraudem evasion lēgis of-the-law fēcisse to-have-acted
34.26b Itaque /ˈi.ta.kʷe/ therefore.ADV iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG prōnūntiāvit /proː.nuːn.tiˈaː.wit/ pronounce.3SG.PERF Titium /ˈti.ti.um/ Titius.ACC.M.SG in /in/ into.PREP+ACC fraudem /ˈfrau̯.dem/ fraud.ACC.F.SG lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG fēcisse /feːˈkis.se/ do.PERF.INF
34.27a Fac see-to-it inquit said iūdex the-judge ut that nāvis the-ship intrā within decem ten diēs days ā from rīpā the-bank removeātur is-removed
34.27b Fac /fak/ do.2SG.PRES.IMPER inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG ut /ut/ that.CONJ nāvis /ˈnaː.wis/ ship.NOM.F.SG intrā /ˈin.traː/ within.PREP+ACC decem /ˈde.kem/ ten.INDECL diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.ACC.M.PL ā /aː/ from.PREP+ABL rīpā /ˈriː.paː/ bank.ABL.F.SG removeātur /re.mo.weˈaː.tur/ remove.3SG.PRES.SUBJ.PASS
34.28a Titius Titius īrātus angry clāmāvit shouted sē himself nihil nothing malī of-wrong fēcisse to-have-done
34.28b Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG īrātus /iːˈraː.tus/ angry.NOM.M.SG clāmāvit /klaːˈmaː.wit/ shout.3SG.PERF sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG malī /ˈma.liː/ bad.GEN.N.SG fēcisse /feːˈkis.se/ do.PERF.INF
34.29a Post after decem ten diēs days nāvis the-ship remōta removed est was et and rīpa the-bank iterum again lībera free facta made est was
34.29b Post /post/ after.PREP+ACC decem /ˈde.kem/ ten.INDECL diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.ACC.M.PL nāvis /ˈnaː.wis/ ship.NOM.F.SG remōta /reˈmoː.ta/ remove.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES et /et/ and.CONJ rīpa /ˈriː.pa/ bank.NOM.F.SG iterum /ˈi.te.rum/ again.ADV lībera /ˈliː.be.ra/ free.NOM.F.SG facta /ˈfak.ta/ make.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
34.30a Nunc now omnēs all cīvēs the-citizens sciunt know quod what lēx the-law fierī to-be-done nōn not vult wants id that nēmō no-one facere to-do potest can nē not callidē cleverly quidem even
34.30b Nunc /nuŋk/ now.ADV omnēs /ˈom.neːs/ all.NOM.M.PL cīvēs /ˈkiː.weːs/ citizen.NOM.M.PL sciunt /ˈski.unt/ know.3PL.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/ be-done.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vult /wult/ want.3SG.PRES id /id/ that.ACC.N.SG nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG facere /ˈfa.ke.re/ do.PRES.INF potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES nē /neː/ not.ADV callidē /ˈkal.li.deː/ cleverly.ADV quidem /ˈkʷi.dem/ even.ADV
Part B: Natural Sentences
34.16 Lēx cīvitātis prohibet nē quis prope flūmen aedificium faciat. → “The city’s statute forbids anyone to put up a building near the river.”
34.17 Titius tamen, homō dīves, magnam nāvem in rīpā posuit et in eā domum sibi fēcit. → “Titius, however, a rich man, set a large ship on the bank and made himself a home in it.”
34.18 “Aedificium nōn fēcī,” inquit; “nāvis enim aedificium nōn est.” → “‘I have not put up a building,’ he said, ‘for a ship is not a building.’”
34.19 Vīcīnī querēbantur: “Quid facit iste? Lēgem ēlūdit!” → “The neighbours complained: ‘What is that fellow doing? He is dodging the law!’”
34.20 Iūdex Titium interrogāvit: “Quid in rīpā fēcistī?” → “The judge asked Titius: ‘What have you done on the bank?’”
34.21 “Nihil contrā lēgem fēcī,” respondit Titius; “lēx enim dē nāvibus nihil dīcit.” → “‘I have done nothing against the law,’ Titius answered, ‘for the law says nothing about ships.’”
34.22 Advocātus vīcīnōrum respondit: “Quod lēx vetat, fierī nōn dēbet, etiam sī verba lēgis servantur.” → “The neighbours’ advocate replied: ‘What the law forbids must not be done, even if the words of the law are kept.’”
34.23 Iūdex verba Paulī recitāvit: “Contrā lēgem facit, quī id facit quod lēx prohibet.” → “The judge read out the words of Paul: ‘A person acts against the law when he does what the law forbids.’”
34.24 “In fraudem vērō facit,” inquit, “quī salvīs verbīs lēgis sententiam eius circumvenit.” → “‘But he acts in evasion of it,’ he said, ‘when, keeping to its words, he gets round its intention.’”
34.25 “Titius verba lēgis servāvit, sed id fēcit quod lēx fierī nōluit.” → “‘Titius kept to the words of the law, but he did what the law did not want done.’”
34.26 Itaque iūdex prōnūntiāvit Titium in fraudem lēgis fēcisse. → “So the judge ruled that Titius had acted in evasion of the law.”
34.27 “Fac,” inquit iūdex, “ut nāvis intrā decem diēs ā rīpā removeātur.” → “‘See to it,’ said the judge, ‘that the ship is removed from the bank within ten days.’”
34.28 Titius īrātus clāmāvit sē nihil malī fēcisse. → “Titius protested angrily that he had done nothing wrong.”
34.29 Post decem diēs nāvis remōta est, et rīpa iterum lībera facta est. → “Ten days later the ship was removed, and the bank was clear again.”
34.30 Nunc omnēs cīvēs sciunt: quod lēx fierī nōn vult, id nēmō facere potest, nē callidē quidem. → “Now every citizen knows: what the law does not want done, no one may do, not even cleverly.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
34.16 Lēx cīvitātis prohibet nē quis prope flūmen aedificium faciat.
34.17 Titius tamen, homō dīves, magnam nāvem in rīpā posuit et in eā domum sibi fēcit.
34.18 “Aedificium nōn fēcī,” inquit; “nāvis enim aedificium nōn est.”
34.19 Vīcīnī querēbantur: “Quid facit iste? Lēgem ēlūdit!”
34.20 Iūdex Titium interrogāvit: “Quid in rīpā fēcistī?”
34.21 “Nihil contrā lēgem fēcī,” respondit Titius; “lēx enim dē nāvibus nihil dīcit.”
34.22 Advocātus vīcīnōrum respondit: “Quod lēx vetat, fierī nōn dēbet, etiam sī verba lēgis servantur.”
34.23 Iūdex verba Paulī recitāvit: “Contrā lēgem facit, quī id facit quod lēx prohibet.”
34.24 “In fraudem vērō facit,” inquit, “quī salvīs verbīs lēgis sententiam eius circumvenit.”
34.25 “Titius verba lēgis servāvit, sed id fēcit quod lēx fierī nōluit.”
34.26 Itaque iūdex prōnūntiāvit Titium in fraudem lēgis fēcisse.
34.27 “Fac,” inquit iūdex, “ut nāvis intrā decem diēs ā rīpā removeātur.”
34.28 Titius īrātus clāmāvit sē nihil malī fēcisse.
34.29 Post decem diēs nāvis remōta est, et rīpa iterum lībera facta est.
34.30 Nunc omnēs cīvēs sciunt: quod lēx fierī nōn vult, id nēmō facere potest, nē callidē quidem.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The report runs through the forms of faciō and fīō. Present: facit (34.19, 34.23, 34.24). Present subjunctive: faciat (34.16). Imperative: fac (34.27). Infinitive: facere (34.30). Perfect: fēcī (34.18, 34.21), fēcistī (34.20), fēcit (34.17, 34.25). Perfect infinitive: fēcisse (34.26, 34.28). Fīō: fierī (34.22, 34.25, 34.30). Perfect passive: facta est (34.29).
The constructions. Faciō with an object: aedificium faciat (34.16), domum sibi fēcit (34.17), with sibi a dative of advantage, “for himself.” Faciō absolutely, “act”: contrā lēgem facit and in fraudem facit (34.23, 34.24), in fraudem lēgis fēcisse (34.26). Fac ut + present subjunctive, “see to it that” (34.27): removeātur is present because fac looks to the future. Fīō as the passive of faciō: quod lēx vetat, fierī nōn dēbet (34.22); quod lēx fierī nōluit (34.25), echoing Ulpian’s quod fierī nōluit in Section F. Facta est with a predicate adjective in the nominative: rīpa lībera facta est, “the bank was made free, became clear” (34.29).
Other points. Prohibet nē quis … faciat (34.16): after prohibeō, a nē-clause with the subjunctive; after nē, aliquis becomes quis. Iste (34.19) is the demonstrative of the second person, and in the mouth of an opponent it is contemptuous: “that fellow.” Querēbantur is the imperfect of the deponent queror: the neighbours kept complaining. Nihil malī (34.28) is a partitive genitive, “nothing of wrong,” like quicquam falsī in Lesson 33. Nē … quidem (34.30) encloses the word it emphasises: nē callidē quidem, “not even cleverly.” In 34.30 the relative clause comes first and id takes it up: quod … id, as in Section F. In 34.24 the authentic text of Paul is quoted with facit supplied, which Paul leaves to be understood from the clause before.
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The vowel of the stem changes with the tense: short a in the present (faciō, facit, facere), long ē in the perfect (fēcī, fēcit, fēcisse), short a again in the participle (factum, facta). Hear the difference in facit /ˈfa.kit/ and fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/.
Fīō has a long ī before a vowel (fīō, fīat, fīunt), against the general rule. The i is short in fit /fit/ and before -er- (fierī /ˈfi.e.riː/, fierem).
Factum has a short a; āctum, from agō, has a long ā. Āctus in 34.12 has a long ā.
Ignōrantia: classical gn was probably pronounced /ŋn/, as in the restored pronunciation given here: /iŋ.noːˈran.ti.am/. Magnam likewise: /ˈmaŋ.nam/.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all legal citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal phrases in running English text (de facto, fieri facias, actus non facit reum) are likewise printed without macrons.
Greek in Latin texts: the Digest sometimes quotes Greek, and the standard edition prints it in Greek letters. The breathing on ῥητὸν marks an initial aspirated r, written rh in Latin transliteration (rhētor, rhētorica).
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūdex, vīcīnī). Eius has a doubled consonantal i in pronunciation: /ˈej.jus/.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁴ ◊ᶠᵃᶜⁱᵒ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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