← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁵ ◊ᵈⁱᶜᵒ
Welcome to Lesson 35 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the verb dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum, “to say, to speak, to declare.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 33rd among all Latin words. It is the verb of the spoken word, and in Roman law the spoken word was itself an act: the praetor “said the law” (iūs dīcit), the witness “said” what he knew, the defendant “said his case.” Lawyers meet dīcō in jurisdiction (iūrisdictiō, “the saying of law”), in dictum and obiter dictum, in edict, interdict, verdict and indictment, and in the word iūdex itself, “the one who points out the law.”
What does dīcō mean in legal Latin?
Dīcō means “I say.” With a direct object it names what is said: vērum dīcere, “to tell the truth”; nihil dīcere, “to say nothing.” With an accusative and infinitive it reports speech: dīxit sē nihil vīdisse, “he said that he had seen nothing.” In the law it forms a family of fixed phrases: iūs dīcere, “to declare the law, to exercise jurisdiction”; causam dīcere, “to plead one’s case” (said of the defendant); diem dīcere, “to name a day,” that is, to summon a person to trial; sententiam dīcere, “to state one’s opinion, to give a verdict”; testimōnium dīcere, “to give evidence.”
The passive dīcitur means “it is said” or “he is said”: reus dīcitur fūrtum fēcisse, “the defendant is said to have committed theft.” The neuter perfect participle dictum, “a thing said,” became the noun for “a saying, a word, a statement,” the source of the law’s dictum.
How does Latin differ from English here?
English distinguishes “say,” “tell,” “speak” and “declare.” Latin uses dīcō for all of them, and saves loquor for the act of talking and inquit for quoting direct speech. English “he said that …” becomes a Latin accusative and infinitive, with no word for “that”: dīcit testāmentum nūllum esse, “he says (that) the will is void.” And English has no single verb that, in the mouth of a magistrate, both speaks and decides: when the praetor “says,” the law is made to apply.
Etymology: dīcō goes back to an Indo-European root meaning “to show, to point out.” It is related to Greek δείκνυμι, “I show,” to Greek δίκη, “justice,” and to German zeigen, “to show.” The word iūdex is a compound of iūs, “law,” and the stem dic-: the judge is the one who declares the law. Iūdicium, “a trial,” and iūdicāre, “to judge,” come from it. The compounds of dīcō keep the long ī: ēdīcō, “proclaim” (ēdictum, “edict”); interdīcō, “forbid” (interdictum, “interdict”); addīcō, “adjudge, assign”; contrādīcō, “speak against”; indīcō, “declare publicly.” From these come English “edict,” “interdict,” “contradict,” “dictate,” “diction,” “predict,” and, through Anglo-French, “verdict” and “indict.”
Key Takeaways
⚖ Dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum is a third-conjugation verb: dīc- in the present, dīx- (that is, dīc- + s) in the perfect, dict- with a short i in the participle
⚖ The imperative is the short form dīc, “say!”, like fac, dūc and fer
⚖ Dīcō reports speech with the accusative and infinitive: dīxit sē nihil vīdisse
⚖ Legal phrases: iūs dīcere (to exercise jurisdiction), causam dīcere (to plead one’s case), diem dīcere (to summon to trial), sententiam dīcere (to give one’s verdict)
⚖ Dictum, “a thing said,” is the source of the law’s dictum and obiter dictum; ut suprā dictum est, “as was said above,” is a fixed formula of legal drafting
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dīcō /ˈdiː.koː/: two syllables, stress on the first. Both vowels are long. The c is always /k/, as in “king,” never /s/ or /tʃ/: say DEE-koh, not “DEE-cho” or “DEE-so.”
dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/: stress on the first syllable, as in every third-conjugation infinitive. Do not say “dee-KAY-re.”
dīxī /ˈdiːk.siː/: the x is /ks/. Dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/, “he said,” and dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/, “he says,” differ in the consonant: /ks/ in the perfect, /k/ in the present. The vowel is long in both.
dictum /ˈdik.tum/: here the i is short. The participle stem dict- does not share the long ī of the present and perfect. Dicta /ˈdik.ta/ is the same.
dīc /diːk/: one syllable, with the long ī kept.
iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/: the first syllable is long; the second, which comes from dīc-, is short. Iūdicis /ˈjuː.di.kis/, iūdicium /juːˈdi.ki.um/.
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35.1a Quid what dīcis do-you-say
35.1b Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG dīcis /ˈdiː.kis/ say.2SG.PRES
35.2a Testis the-witness vērum the-truth dīcit tells
35.2b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG vērum /ˈweː.rum/ true.ACC.N.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES
35.3a Iūdex the-judge iūs the-law dīcit declares
35.3b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES
35.4a Dīc say nōmen name tuum your
35.4b Dīc /diːk/ say.2SG.PRES.IMPER nōmen /ˈnoː.men/ name.ACC.N.SG tuum /ˈtu.um/ your.ACC.N.SG
35.5a Dictum word meum my pactum bond
35.5b Dictum /ˈdik.tum/ word.NOM.N.SG meum /ˈme.um/ my.NOM.N.SG pactum /ˈpak.tum/ agreement.NOM.N.SG
35.6a Reus the-defendant prīmō on-the-first diē day nihil nothing dīxit said
35.6b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG prīmō /ˈpriː.moː/ first.ABL.M.SG diē /ˈdi.eː/ day.ABL.M.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
35.7a Reus the-defendant causam case suam his-own ipse himself dīxit pleaded
35.7b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG causam /ˈkau̯.sam/ case.ACC.F.SG suam /ˈsu.am/ his-own.ACC.F.SG ipse /ˈip.se/ himself.NOM.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
35.8a Tribūnus the-tribune plēbis of-the-plebs cōnsulī to-the-consul diem a-day dīxit named
35.8b Tribūnus /triˈbuː.nus/ tribune.NOM.M.SG plēbis /ˈpleː.bis/ plebs.GEN.F.SG cōnsulī /ˈkoːn.su.liː/ consul.DAT.M.SG diem /ˈdi.em/ day.ACC.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
35.9a Testis the-witness iūrātus on-oath dīxit said sē himself nihil nothing vīdisse to-have-seen
35.9b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG iūrātus /juːˈraː.tus/ swear.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG vīdisse /wiːˈdis.se/ see.PERF.INF
35.10a Advocātus the-advocate dīcit says testāmentum the-will nūllum void esse to-be
35.10b Advocātus /ad.woˈkaː.tus/ advocate.NOM.M.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.ACC.N.SG nūllum /ˈnuːl.lum/ none.ACC.N.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF
35.11a Ut as suprā above dictum said est it-was hērēs the-heir aes money aliēnum of-another dēfūnctī of-the-deceased solvere to-pay dēbet must
35.11b Ut /ut/ as.CONJ suprā /ˈsu.praː/ above.ADV dictum /ˈdik.tum/ say.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG aes /ae̯s/ money.ACC.N.SG aliēnum /a.liˈeː.num/ another’s.ACC.N.SG dēfūnctī /deːˈfuːŋk.tiː/ deceased.GEN.M.SG solvere /ˈsol.we.re/ pay.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES
35.12a Quod what obiter by-the-way dictum said est is iūdicēs judges posteriōrēs later nōn not obligat binds
35.12b Quod /kʷod/ which.NOM.N.SG obiter /ˈo.bi.ter/ in-passing.ADV dictum /ˈdik.tum/ say.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.ACC.M.PL posteriōrēs /pos.te.riˈoː.reːs/ later.ACC.M.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV obligat /ˈob.li.ɡat/ bind.3SG.PRES
35.13a Iūdicis of-a-judge officium the-duty est is iūs law dīcere to-declare nōn not iūs law dare to-give
35.13b Iūdicis /ˈjuː.di.kis/ judge.GEN.M.SG officium /ofˈfi.ki.um/ duty.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dare /ˈda.re/ give.PRES.INF
35.14a Quae the-things-which ā by testibus the-witnesses dicta said sunt were iūdex the-judge dīligenter carefully exāminet should-examine
35.14b Quae /kʷae̯/ which.NOM.N.PL ā /aː/ by.PREP+ABL testibus /ˈtes.ti.bus/ witness.ABL.M.PL dicta /ˈdik.ta/ say.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV exāminet /ekˈsaː.mi.net/ examine.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
35.15a Iūs law dīcentis of-the-one-declaring officium the-office lātissimum very-wide est is nam for et both bonōrum of-the-goods possessiōnem possession dare to-grant potest he-can et and in into possessiōnem possession mittere to-send pupillīs for-wards nōn not habentibus having tūtōrēs guardians cōnstituere to-appoint iūdicēs judges lītigantibus to-litigants dare to-give
35.15b Iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dīcentis /diːˈken.tis/ say.PRES.PART.GEN.M.SG officium /ofˈfi.ki.um/ office.NOM.N.SG lātissimum /laːˈtis.si.mum/ wide.SUPERL.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES nam /nam/ for.CONJ et /et/ both.CONJ bonōrum /boˈnoː.rum/ goods.GEN.N.PL possessiōnem /pos.ses.siˈoː.nem/ possession.ACC.F.SG dare /ˈda.re/ give.PRES.INF potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES et /et/ and.CONJ in /in/ into.PREP+ACC possessiōnem /pos.ses.siˈoː.nem/ possession.ACC.F.SG mittere /ˈmit.te.re/ send.PRES.INF pupillīs /puˈpil.liːs/ ward.DAT.M.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV habentibus /haˈben.ti.bus/ have.PRES.PART.DAT.M.PL tūtōrēs /tuːˈtoː.reːs/ guardian.ACC.M.PL cōnstituere /koːnˈsti.tu.e.re/ appoint.PRES.INF iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.ACC.M.PL lītigantibus /liː.tiˈɡan.ti.bus/ litigate.PRES.PART.DAT.M.PL dare /ˈda.re/ give.PRES.INF
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35.1 Quid dīcis? → “What do you say?”
35.2 Testis vērum dīcit. → “The witness is telling the truth.”
35.3 Iūdex iūs dīcit. → “The judge declares the law.”
35.4 Dīc nōmen tuum. → “State your name.”
35.5 Dictum meum pactum. → “My word is my bond.” (motto of the London Stock Exchange)
35.6 Reus prīmō diē nihil dīxit. → “On the first day the defendant said nothing.”
35.7 Reus causam suam ipse dīxit. → “The defendant pleaded his case himself.”
35.8 Tribūnus plēbis cōnsulī diem dīxit. → “The tribune of the plebs summoned the consul to trial.” (literally, “named a day for the consul”)
35.9 Testis iūrātus dīxit sē nihil vīdisse. → “The witness, on oath, said that he had seen nothing.”
35.10 Advocātus dīcit testāmentum nūllum esse. → “The advocate says that the will is void.”
35.11 Ut suprā dictum est, hērēs aes aliēnum dēfūnctī solvere dēbet. → “As was said above, the heir must pay the debts of the deceased.”
35.12 Quod obiter dictum est, iūdicēs posteriōrēs nōn obligat. → “What is said in passing does not bind later judges.”
35.13 Iūdicis officium est iūs dīcere, nōn iūs dare. → “A judge’s duty is to declare the law, not to make it.” (after Francis Bacon, “Of Judicature”)
35.14 Quae ā testibus dicta sunt, iūdex dīligenter exāminet. → “The judge should examine carefully what the witnesses have said.”
35.15 Iūs dīcentis officium lātissimum est: nam et bonōrum possessiōnem dare potest et in possessiōnem mittere, pupillīs nōn habentibus tūtōrēs cōnstituere, iūdicēs lītigantibus dare. → “The office of the magistrate who declares the law is very wide: he can grant possession of an estate and put a person into possession, appoint guardians for wards who have none, and give judges to litigants.” (Ulpian, Digest 2.1.1)
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35.1 Quid dīcis?
35.2 Testis vērum dīcit.
35.3 Iūdex iūs dīcit.
35.4 Dīc nōmen tuum.
35.5 Dictum meum pactum.
35.6 Reus prīmō diē nihil dīxit.
35.7 Reus causam suam ipse dīxit.
35.8 Tribūnus plēbis cōnsulī diem dīxit.
35.9 Testis iūrātus dīxit sē nihil vīdisse.
35.10 Advocātus dīcit testāmentum nūllum esse.
35.11 Ut suprā dictum est, hērēs aes aliēnum dēfūnctī solvere dēbet.
35.12 Quod obiter dictum est, iūdicēs posteriōrēs nōn obligat.
35.13 Iūdicis officium est iūs dīcere, nōn iūs dare.
35.14 Quae ā testibus dicta sunt, iūdex dīligenter exāminet.
35.15 Iūs dīcentis officium lātissimum est: nam et bonōrum possessiōnem dare potest et in possessiōnem mittere, pupillīs nōn habentibus tūtōrēs cōnstituere, iūdicēs lītigantibus dare.
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These are the grammar rules for dīcō in Latin:
1. Principal parts. Dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum: third conjugation, like dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductum. The present stem is dīc- (dīcō, dīcit, dīcere), the perfect stem dīx-, formed by adding s to the stem (c + s is written x), and the participle stem dict-, with a short i. In the glosses of this lesson every form of dīcō is glossed under the root say, whatever the English translation (“tell,” “declare,” “plead,” “name”).
2. The present active: dīcō (quoted, 35.19), dīcis (35.1), dīcit (35.2, 35.3, 35.10), dīcimus, dīcitis (35.22), dīcunt. Imperative: dīc (35.4, 35.17), dīcite. Imperfect: dīcēbam, dīcēbās, dīcēbat … Future: dīcam (35.20), dīcēs, dīcet … Present infinitive: dīcere (35.13, 35.18, 35.19, 35.30).
3. The subjunctive. Present: dīcam, dīcās, dīcat, dīcāmus, dīcātis, dīcant. Imperfect: dīcerem, dīcerēs, dīceret … Note that dīcam is both the future indicative (“I shall say,” 35.20) and the present subjunctive (“let me say”); the context decides.
4. The perfect active: dīxī (35.29), dīxistī, dīxit (35.6, 35.7, 35.8, 35.9, 35.16, 35.21, 35.23, 35.24, 35.25, 35.26, 35.27, 35.28, 35.30), dīximus, dīxistis, dīxērunt. Pluperfect dīxeram … Perfect infinitive dīxisse.
5. The passive. Dīcō has a full passive: dīcitur, “he is said, it is said”; dīcuntur, “they are said”; dīcī, “to be said.” In the perfect system the participle is used with sum: dictum est, “it was said” (35.11, 35.12); dicta sunt, “they were said” (35.14). The neuter participle used as a noun is dictum, “a saying, a word” (35.5).
6. The participles. Present: dīcēns, dīcentis, “saying”: iūs dīcentis, “of the one declaring the law” (35.15). Gerundive: dīcendus, -a, -um, “to be said”: quod dīcendum est, “what must be said” (35.20).
7. Dīcō with a direct object: the thing said. Vērum dīcere, “to tell the truth” (35.2); nihil dīcere, “to say nothing” (35.6); nōmen dīcere, “to state one’s name” (35.4); sententiam dīcere, “to give one’s verdict” (35.27, 35.29).
8. Dīcō with the accusative and infinitive: reported speech. Dīxit sē nihil vīdisse, “he said that he had seen nothing” (35.9); dīcit testāmentum nūllum esse, “he says that the will is void” (35.10). The subject of the reported statement goes into the accusative (sē, testāmentum), and its verb into the infinitive. English “that” has no Latin equivalent here. The reflexive sē refers back to the subject of dīxit: “he said that he himself …”
9. The legal phrases. Iūs dīcere, “to declare the law, to exercise jurisdiction” (35.3, 35.13, 35.15, 35.17, 35.18). Causam dīcere, “to plead one’s case,” said of the party who defends himself (35.7). Diem dīcere with a dative, “to name a day for someone,” that is, to summon him to trial (35.8). Sententiam dīcere, “to state one’s opinion,” of a senator, or to pronounce one’s verdict, of a judge (35.27, 35.29).
10. The personal passive. Where English says “it is said that the defendant committed theft,” Latin prefers the personal construction: reus dīcitur fūrtum fēcisse, “the defendant is said to have committed theft.” The subject stays in the nominative and the verb of the reported statement is an infinitive.
11. Inquit and dīxit. Inquit, “he says, he said,” is used only to introduce or interrupt direct quotation, and it normally stands after the first word or words of the quotation (35.17). Dīxit can introduce direct speech too (35.16, 35.25), and is the only one of the two that can take an accusative and infinitive.
12. Mood and tense. In 35.14, exāminet is a jussive subjunctive, “let him examine, he should examine.” In 35.11, ut with the indicative means “as”: ut suprā dictum est, “as was said above.” In 35.12 the relative clause quod obiter dictum est is itself the subject of obligat.
The forms of dīcō used in this lesson: dīcis, dīcit, dīc, dictum, dīxit, dictum est, dīcere, dicta sunt, dīcentis; and in the Genre Section dīcō, dīcam, dīcendum, dīcitis, dīxī. In Section F the word dīcō is quoted as one of the praetor’s three words.
Common Mistakes
Pronouncing the c as /s/ or /tʃ/: ✗ “DEE-so,” ✗ “DEE-cho.” In classical Latin c is always /k/: /ˈdiː.koː/, /ˈdiː.ke.re/.
Confusing dīcō, dīcere (third conjugation, “say”) with dicō, dicāre (first conjugation, “dedicate”). The second has a short i and gives dēdicāre, praedicāre and indicāre. Indīcere, “to declare publicly,” and indicāre, “to point out,” are different verbs.
Giving the participle a long ī: ✗ dīctum. The participle and its derivatives have a short i: dictum, dicta, iūrisdictiō.
Writing “that” after dīcit: ✗ dīcit quod testāmentum nūllum est. Classical Latin uses the accusative and infinitive: dīcit testāmentum nūllum esse. (Quod after verbs of saying belongs to late and medieval Latin.)
Using the impersonal passive with an accusative and infinitive: ✗ dīcitur reum fūrtum fēcisse. Classical Latin says reus dīcitur fūrtum fēcisse.
Forgetting the short imperative: ✗ dīce. Classical Latin says dīc, as it says fac, dūc and fer.
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Iurisdictio
The Latin for jurisdiction is iūrisdictiō, “the saying of law.” The Roman magistrate who iūs dīcit did not decide private cases himself. In the formulary procedure he heard the parties, granted or refused the action, and named the judge (iūdex) who would decide the facts. Ulpian’s sentence in 35.15 (Digest 2.1.1, from the first book of his Rules) lists what the office of the “one who says the law” includes: granting possession of an estate, putting a person into possession, appointing guardians for wards, and giving judges to litigants. The title of the Digest it opens is “On jurisdiction.”
Ius dicere, non ius dare
“Judges ought to remember that their office is jus dicere, and not jus dare; to interpret law, and not to make law, or give law.” So Francis Bacon opened his essay “Of Judicature.” Example 35.13 puts his contrast into a Latin sentence. The distinction between declaring the law and making it is still argued wherever the courts are accused of legislating.
Dictum, obiter dictum, ratio decidendi
In the common law a dictum is a statement of law made by a judge. The ratio decidendi, “the reason for deciding,” is the principle on which a case is decided, and binds later courts. An obiter dictum, “a thing said by the way,” is a remark not necessary to the decision, and does not bind, though it may persuade (35.12). The word obiter is classical Latin for “on the way, in passing.”
Diem dicere, causam dicere
In the Roman Republic a tribune of the plebs who wished to prosecute a magistrate or former magistrate before the people “named a day” for him: diem dīxit (35.8). The accused then “pleaded his case,” causam dīxit (35.7). Both phrases are standard in the Roman historians.
Edict, interdict, verdict, indictment
The praetor’s edict (ēdictum, from ēdīcō, “I proclaim”) was his public statement, on taking office, of the actions and remedies he would grant. Under Hadrian it was settled in a permanent form, the Edictum perpetuum. An interdict (interdictum, from interdīcō, “I forbid”) was a summary order of the praetor, typically to protect possession; the word survives in Scots law and in the civil law. English verdict comes through Anglo-French from Medieval Latin vērēdictum, “a thing truly said.” English indict comes through Anglo-French from Latin indīcere, “to declare publicly.”
Addictus
Addīcō, “I adjudge, I assign,” was the magistrate’s word for awarding a thing or a person to a party. Under the Twelve Tables a judgment debtor who did not pay could be adjudged (addictus) to his creditor. From addictus, “one handed over,” English has “addict.”
Dictum meum pactum
“My word is my bond” (35.5) is the motto of the London Stock Exchange. It recalls a market in which bargains were made by word of mouth and kept on the strength of that word.
Ut supra dictum est
In legal drafting, ut suprā dictum est, “as said above,” and its relatives suprā dictus, “the above-said,” and praedictus, “the aforesaid,” are the Latin ancestors of the English draftsman’s “said” and “aforesaid”: “the said property,” “the aforesaid defendant.”
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The following passage is from Marcus Terentius Varro’s On the Latin Language (De lingua Latina), book 6, written in the 40s BC. Varro is explaining the names of the days of the Roman calendar. On the dies fāstī the praetor might speak the formal words of his office; on the dies nefāstī he might not, and so no legal proceeding could take place. The three forbidden words are dō, dīcō, addīcō, “I give, I declare, I adjudge.” The text is printed as in the Latin Library edition; the first sentence is cut after fārī.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Diēs days fāstī lawful per during quōs which praetōribus for-the-praetors omnia all verba words sine without piāculō sin licet it-is-permitted fārī to-speak
F.1b Diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.NOM.M.PL fāstī /ˈfaːs.tiː/ lawful.NOM.M.PL per /per/ through.PREP+ACC quōs /kʷoːs/ which.ACC.M.PL praetōribus /prae̯ˈtoː.ri.bus/ praetor.DAT.M.PL omnia /ˈom.ni.a/ all.ACC.N.PL verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL piāculō /piˈaː.ku.loː/ sin.ABL.N.SG licet /ˈli.ket/ be-permitted.3SG.PRES fārī /ˈfaː.riː/ speak.PRES.INF.DEP
F.2a Contrāriī the-opposites hōrum of-these vocantur are-called diēs days nefāstī forbidden per during quōs which diēs days nefās a-sin fārī to-speak praetōrem the-praetor dō I-give dīcō I-declare addīcō I-adjudge
F.2b Contrāriī /konˈtraː.ri.iː/ opposite.NOM.M.PL hōrum /ˈhoː.rum/ this.GEN.M.PL vocantur /woˈkan.tur/ call.3PL.PRES.PASS diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.NOM.M.PL nefāstī /neˈfaːs.tiː/ forbidden.NOM.M.PL per /per/ through.PREP+ACC quōs /kʷoːs/ which.ACC.M.PL diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.ACC.M.PL nefās /ˈne.faːs/ wrong.NOM.N.INDECL fārī /ˈfaː.riː/ speak.PRES.INF.DEP praetōrem /prae̯ˈtoː.rem/ praetor.ACC.M.SG dō /doː/ give.1SG.PRES dīcō /ˈdiː.koː/ say.1SG.PRES addīcō /adˈdiː.koː/ adjudge.1SG.PRES
F.3a itaque and-so nōn not potest it-can agī be-proceeded necesse necessary est it-is aliquō some eōrum of-them ūtī to-use verbō word cum when lēge by-law quid anything peragitur is-carried-through
F.3b itaque /ˈi.ta.kʷe/ therefore.ADV nōn /noːn/ not.ADV potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES agī /ˈa.ɡiː/ act.PRES.INF.PASS necesse /neˈkes.se/ necessary.INDECL est /est/ be.3SG.PRES aliquō /ˈa.li.kʷoː/ some.ABL.N.SG eōrum /eˈoː.rum/ it.GEN.N.PL ūtī /ˈuː.tiː/ use.PRES.INF.DEP verbō /ˈwer.boː/ word.ABL.N.SG cum /kum/ when.CONJ lēge /ˈleː.ɡe/ law.ABL.F.SG quid /kʷid/ anything.NOM.N.SG peragitur /peˈra.ɡi.tur/ carry-through.3SG.PRES.PASS
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Dies fasti, per quos praetoribus omnia verba sine piaculo licet fari … Contrarii horum vocantur dies nefasti, per quos dies nefas fari praetorem “do,” “dico,” “addico”; itaque non potest agi: necesse est aliquo eorum uti verbo, cum lege quid peragitur.
→ “The dies fasti are the days on which the praetors may speak all words without sin … The opposite of these are called dies nefasti, days on which it is a sin for the praetor to say ‘I give,’ ‘I declare,’ ‘I adjudge’; and so no legal proceeding can take place, since one of these words must be used whenever anything is carried through by legal process.”
— Varro, De lingua Latina 6.29–30 (40s BC)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Dies fasti, per quos praetoribus omnia verba sine piaculo licet fari … Contrarii horum vocantur dies nefasti, per quos dies nefas fari praetorem “do,” “dico,” “addico”; itaque non potest agi: necesse est aliquo eorum uti verbo, cum lege quid peragitur.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Fārī is the infinitive of the deponent verb for, fārī, “to speak,” an old and solemn word; fās, “what is divinely permitted,” and nefās, “what is forbidden,” come from the same root, and so do fāstī and nefāstī. In F.1 licet takes a dative of the person (praetōribus) and an infinitive (fārī): “it is permitted to the praetors to speak.” In F.2 the construction changes: nefās (est), with the copula left out, takes an accusative and infinitive, praetōrem fārī, “that the praetor should speak.” The three verbs dō, dīcō, addīcō are quoted as words, the objects of fārī; each is a first person singular present, because each was spoken by the praetor in his own person. Per quōs diēs repeats the noun diēs inside the relative clause, a habit of formal Latin. In F.3 agī is the impersonal passive of agō in its legal sense, “to bring an action, to proceed”: nōn potest agī, “there can be no proceeding.” Ūtor takes the ablative: aliquō … verbō, “some word.” In cum lēge quid peragitur, quid is the indefinite “anything,” as after sī, nisi, nē and num.
Commentary. Varro shows that in Roman law certain words did not describe an act but performed it. When the praetor said dō, a judge was given; when he said addīcō, a thing or a person was adjudged. Modern scholars usually connect dō with the giving of a judge (iūdicem dō), dīcō with the declaring of law, and addīcō with the awarding of what is claimed; Varro himself names the words without explaining them. Because the words were acts, they were bound by the sacred calendar: to speak them on a forbidden day was a sin, and Varro goes on to say that a magistrate who did so in error could expiate it with a sacrifice, but not one who did so knowingly. Ovid gives the same rule in verse in the first book of his Fasti (1.47–48): ille nefāstus erit, per quem tria verba silentur; / fāstus erit, per quem lēge licēbit agī, “that day will be nefastus on which the three words are silent; that day will be fastus on which it will be lawful to proceed at law.” The modern lawyer knows the same idea in another form: the words “I find,” “I order,” “I pronounce” in a judgment are not reports but acts, and a court that has no jurisdiction cannot speak them. The spelling in F-B and F-C is that of the edition, without macrons.
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The protocol assigns narrative or news to verbs. Lesson 34 was a news report; this is a narrative. It takes the rule in Section F and sets it in the court of a praetor. The two parties carry the stock names that Gaius uses in his model formulae: Aulus Agerius (“the one who brings the action”) and Numerius Negidius (“the one who denies”). The judge is Titius, the stock name of the jurists’ examples. The text is a pedagogical composition, not a quotation. Only the words dō, dīcō, addīcō (35.19) come from Varro, and the formula in 35.26 is adapted from Gaius, Institutes 4.41 and 4.43, with pecūniam in place of a sum of money.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
35.16a Diē on-a-day nefāstō forbidden Aulus Aulus Agerius Agerius ad to praetōrem the-praetor vēnit came et and dīxit said Numerius Numerius Negidius Negidius mihi to-me pecūniam money dēbet owes
35.16b Diē /ˈdi.eː/ day.ABL.M.SG nefāstō /neˈfaːs.toː/ forbidden.ABL.M.SG Aulus /ˈau̯.lus/ Aulus.NOM.M.SG Agerius /aˈɡe.ri.us/ Agerius.NOM.M.SG ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC praetōrem /prae̯ˈtoː.rem/ praetor.ACC.M.SG vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF Numerius /nuˈme.ri.us/ Numerius.NOM.M.SG Negidius /neˈɡi.di.us/ Negidius.NOM.M.SG mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG pecūniam /peˈkuː.ni.am/ money.ACC.F.SG dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ owe.3SG.PRES
35.17a Dīc declare quaesō please iūs the-law inter between nōs us inquit he-said
35.17b Dīc /diːk/ say.2SG.PRES.IMPER quaesō /ˈkʷae̯.soː/ beg.1SG.PRES iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG inter /ˈin.ter/ between.PREP+ACC nōs /noːs/ we.ACC.PL inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES
35.18a Praetor the-praetor autem however respondit replied Hodiē today mihi for-me iūs the-law dīcere to-declare nōn not licet it-is-permitted
35.18b Praetor /ˈprae̯.tor/ praetor.NOM.M.SG autem /ˈau̯.tem/ however.CONJ respondit /reˈspon.dit/ answer.3SG.PERF Hodiē /ˈho.di.eː/ today.ADV mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG iūs /juːs/ law.ACC.N.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV licet /ˈli.ket/ be-permitted.3SG.PRES
35.19a Diēbus on-days enim for nefāstīs forbidden nefās a-sin est it-is praetōrem the-praetor dō I-give dīcō I-declare addīcō I-adjudge dīcere to-say
35.19b Diēbus /diˈeː.bus/ day.ABL.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ nefāstīs /neˈfaːs.tiːs/ forbidden.ABL.M.PL nefās /ˈne.faːs/ wrong.NOM.N.INDECL est /est/ be.3SG.PRES praetōrem /prae̯ˈtoː.rem/ praetor.ACC.M.SG dō /doː/ give.1SG.PRES dīcō /ˈdiː.koː/ say.1SG.PRES addīcō /adˈdiː.koː/ adjudge.1SG.PRES dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF
35.20a Crās tomorrow diēs the-day fāstus lawful erit will-be tum then dīcam I-shall-say quod what dīcendum to-be-said est is
35.20b Crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV diēs /ˈdi.eːs/ day.NOM.M.SG fāstus /ˈfaːs.tus/ lawful.NOM.M.SG erit /ˈe.rit/ be.3SG.FUT tum /tum/ then.ADV dīcam /ˈdiː.kam/ say.1SG.FUT quod /kʷod/ which.NOM.N.SG dīcendum /diːˈken.dum/ say.GERUNDIVE.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
35.21a Postrīdiē on-the-next-day Numerius Numerius Negidius Negidius quoque also vēnit came et and dīxit said sē himself nihil nothing dēbēre to-owe
35.21b Postrīdiē /posˈtriː.di.eː/ next-day.ADV Numerius /nuˈme.ri.us/ Numerius.NOM.M.SG Negidius /neˈɡi.di.us/ Negidius.NOM.M.SG quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG dēbēre /deːˈbeː.re/ owe.PRES.INF
35.22a Praetor the-praetor ambōs both audīvit heard et and rogāvit asked Quid what dīcitis do-you-say Ubi where sunt are testēs the-witnesses
35.22b Praetor /ˈprae̯.tor/ praetor.NOM.M.SG ambōs /ˈam.boːs/ both.ACC.M.PL audīvit /au̯ˈdiː.wit/ hear.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ rogāvit /roˈɡaː.wit/ ask.3SG.PERF Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG dīcitis /ˈdiː.ki.tis/ say.2PL.PRES Ubi /ˈu.bi/ where.ADV sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL
35.23a Testis witness prīmus the-first dīxit said Negidium Negidius pecūniam the-money ab from Ageriō Agerius accēpisse to-have-received
35.23b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG prīmus /ˈpriː.mus/ first.NOM.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF Negidium /neˈɡi.di.um/ Negidius.ACC.M.SG pecūniam /peˈkuː.ni.am/ money.ACC.F.SG ab /ab/ from.PREP+ABL Ageriō /aˈɡe.ri.oː/ Agerius.ABL.M.SG accēpisse /ak.keːˈpis.se/ receive.PERF.INF
35.24a Testis witness alter the-second dīxit said sē himself dē about eā that pecūniā money nihil nothing audīvisse to-have-heard
35.24b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG alter /ˈal.ter/ other.NOM.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL eā /ˈe.aː/ that.ABL.F.SG pecūniā /peˈkuː.ni.aː/ money.ABL.F.SG nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.ACC.N.SG audīvisse /au̯.diːˈwis.se/ hear.PERF.INF
35.25a Tum then praetor the-praetor iūdicem a-judge dedit gave et and dīxit said Titius Titius iūdex judge estō let-be
35.25b Tum /tum/ then.ADV praetor /ˈprae̯.tor/ praetor.NOM.M.SG iūdicem /ˈjuː.di.kem/ judge.ACC.M.SG dedit /ˈde.dit/ give.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG estō /ˈes.toː/ be.3SG.FUT.IMPER
35.26a Deinde next formulam the-formula dīxit he-pronounced Sī if pāret it-appears Numerium Numerius Negidium Negidius Aulō to-Aulus Ageriō Agerius pecūniam money dare to-give oportēre to-be-obliged iūdex judge condemnā condemn sī if nōn not pāret it-appears absolve acquit
35.26b Deinde /ˈdei̯n.de/ then.ADV formulam /ˈfor.mu.lam/ formula.ACC.F.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF Sī /siː/ if.CONJ pāret /ˈpaː.ret/ appear.3SG.PRES Numerium /nuˈme.ri.um/ Numerius.ACC.M.SG Negidium /neˈɡi.di.um/ Negidius.ACC.M.SG Aulō /ˈau̯.loː/ Aulus.DAT.M.SG Ageriō /aˈɡe.ri.oː/ Agerius.DAT.M.SG pecūniam /peˈkuː.ni.am/ money.ACC.F.SG dare /ˈda.re/ give.PRES.INF oportēre /o.porˈteː.re/ be-proper.PRES.INF iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.VOC.M.SG condemnā /konˈdem.naː/ condemn.2SG.PRES.IMPER sī /siː/ if.CONJ nōn /noːn/ not.ADV pāret /ˈpaː.ret/ appear.3SG.PRES absolve /abˈsol.we/ acquit.2SG.PRES.IMPER
35.27a Titius Titius causā the-case cognitā having-been-examined sententiam his-verdict dīxit pronounced et and Negidium Negidius condemnāvit condemned
35.27b Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG causā /ˈkau̯.saː/ case.ABL.F.SG cognitā /ˈkoŋ.ni.taː/ examine.PERF.PART.PASS.ABL.F.SG sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ verdict.ACC.F.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ Negidium /neˈɡi.di.um/ Negidius.ACC.M.SG condemnāvit /kon.demˈnaː.wit/ condemn.3SG.PERF
35.28a Negidius Negidius dīxit said sē himself iniūriā unjustly condemnātum condemned esse to-have-been
35.28b Negidius /neˈɡi.di.us/ Negidius.NOM.M.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF sē /seː/ self.ACC.SG iniūriā /inˈjuː.ri.aː/ injustice.ABL.F.SG condemnātum /kon.demˈnaː.tum/ condemn.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.M.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF
35.29a Sed but Titius Titius respondit replied Sententiam the-verdict dīxī I-have-pronounced rēs the-matter iūdicāta judged est is
35.29b Sed /sed/ but.CONJ Titius /ˈti.ti.us/ Titius.NOM.M.SG respondit /reˈspon.dit/ answer.3SG.PERF Sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ verdict.ACC.F.SG dīxī /ˈdiːk.siː/ say.1SG.PERF rēs /reːs/ matter.NOM.F.SG iūdicāta /juː.diˈkaː.ta/ judge.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
35.30a Ita thus quod what praetor the-praetor diē on-the-day nefāstō forbidden dīcere to-say nōn not potuit could diē on-the-day fāstō lawful rīte duly dīxit he-said
35.30b Ita /ˈi.ta/ thus.ADV quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG praetor /ˈprae̯.tor/ praetor.NOM.M.SG diē /ˈdi.eː/ day.ABL.M.SG nefāstō /neˈfaːs.toː/ forbidden.ABL.M.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ say.PRES.INF nōn /noːn/ not.ADV potuit /ˈpo.tu.it/ be-able.3SG.PERF diē /ˈdi.eː/ day.ABL.M.SG fāstō /ˈfaːs.toː/ lawful.ABL.M.SG rīte /ˈriː.te/ duly.ADV dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
Part B: Natural Sentences
35.16 Diē nefāstō Aulus Agerius ad praetōrem vēnit et dīxit: “Numerius Negidius mihi pecūniam dēbet.” → “On a forbidden day Aulus Agerius came to the praetor and said: ‘Numerius Negidius owes me money.’”
35.17 “Dīc, quaesō, iūs inter nōs,” inquit. → “‘Please declare the law between us,’ he said.”
35.18 Praetor autem respondit: “Hodiē mihi iūs dīcere nōn licet.” → “But the praetor replied: ‘Today I am not permitted to declare the law.’”
35.19 “Diēbus enim nefāstīs nefās est praetōrem ‘dō, dīcō, addīcō’ dīcere.” → “‘For on forbidden days it is a sin for the praetor to say “I give, I declare, I adjudge.”’”
35.20 “Crās diēs fāstus erit; tum dīcam quod dīcendum est.” → “‘Tomorrow will be a lawful day; then I shall say what must be said.’”
35.21 Postrīdiē Numerius Negidius quoque vēnit et dīxit sē nihil dēbēre. → “The next day Numerius Negidius came too, and said that he owed nothing.”
35.22 Praetor ambōs audīvit et rogāvit: “Quid dīcitis? Ubi sunt testēs?” → “The praetor heard them both and asked: ‘What do you say? Where are the witnesses?’”
35.23 Testis prīmus dīxit Negidium pecūniam ab Ageriō accēpisse. → “The first witness said that Negidius had received the money from Agerius.”
35.24 Testis alter dīxit sē dē eā pecūniā nihil audīvisse. → “The second witness said that he had heard nothing about that money.”
35.25 Tum praetor iūdicem dedit et dīxit: “Titius iūdex estō.” → “Then the praetor gave a judge and said: ‘Let Titius be judge.’”
35.26 Deinde formulam dīxit: “Sī pāret Numerium Negidium Aulō Ageriō pecūniam dare oportēre, iūdex, condemnā; sī nōn pāret, absolve.” → “Next he pronounced the formula: ‘If it appears that Numerius Negidius ought to pay money to Aulus Agerius, judge, condemn him; if it does not appear, acquit him.’”
35.27 Titius, causā cognitā, sententiam dīxit et Negidium condemnāvit. → “Titius examined the case, pronounced his verdict and condemned Negidius.”
35.28 Negidius dīxit sē iniūriā condemnātum esse. → “Negidius said that he had been condemned unjustly.”
35.29 Sed Titius respondit: “Sententiam dīxī; rēs iūdicāta est.” → “But Titius replied: ‘I have pronounced my verdict; the matter is decided.’”
35.30 Ita quod praetor diē nefāstō dīcere nōn potuit, diē fāstō rīte dīxit. → “So what the praetor could not say on a forbidden day, he duly said on a lawful one.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
35.16 Diē nefāstō Aulus Agerius ad praetōrem vēnit et dīxit: “Numerius Negidius mihi pecūniam dēbet.”
35.17 “Dīc, quaesō, iūs inter nōs,” inquit.
35.18 Praetor autem respondit: “Hodiē mihi iūs dīcere nōn licet.”
35.19 “Diēbus enim nefāstīs nefās est praetōrem ‘dō, dīcō, addīcō’ dīcere.”
35.20 “Crās diēs fāstus erit; tum dīcam quod dīcendum est.”
35.21 Postrīdiē Numerius Negidius quoque vēnit et dīxit sē nihil dēbēre.
35.22 Praetor ambōs audīvit et rogāvit: “Quid dīcitis? Ubi sunt testēs?”
35.23 Testis prīmus dīxit Negidium pecūniam ab Ageriō accēpisse.
35.24 Testis alter dīxit sē dē eā pecūniā nihil audīvisse.
35.25 Tum praetor iūdicem dedit et dīxit: “Titius iūdex estō.”
35.26 Deinde formulam dīxit: “Sī pāret Numerium Negidium Aulō Ageriō pecūniam dare oportēre, iūdex, condemnā; sī nōn pāret, absolve.”
35.27 Titius, causā cognitā, sententiam dīxit et Negidium condemnāvit.
35.28 Negidius dīxit sē iniūriā condemnātum esse.
35.29 Sed Titius respondit: “Sententiam dīxī; rēs iūdicāta est.”
35.30 Ita quod praetor diē nefāstō dīcere nōn potuit, diē fāstō rīte dīxit.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The narrative runs through the forms of dīcō. Present: dīcō, quoted as a word (35.19); dīcitis (35.22). Imperative: dīc (35.17). Future: dīcam (35.20). Infinitive: dīcere (35.18, 35.19, 35.30). Gerundive: dīcendum (35.20). Perfect: dīxit (35.16, 35.21, 35.23–35.28, 35.30), dīxī (35.29).
The constructions. Dīcō with direct speech: dīxit: “Numerius Negidius mihi pecūniam dēbet” (35.16); dīxit: “Titius iūdex estō” (35.25). Dīcō with the accusative and infinitive: dīxit sē nihil dēbēre (35.21); dīxit Negidium pecūniam accēpisse (35.23); dīxit sē … nihil audīvisse (35.24); dīxit sē iniūriā condemnātum esse (35.28), with a perfect passive infinitive. Iūs dīcere, “to declare the law” (35.17, 35.18). Sententiam dīcere, of the judge, “to pronounce the verdict” (35.27, 35.29). Quod dīcendum est, “what is to be said, what must be said” (35.20): the gerundive with est expresses obligation.
The formula. In 35.25 estō is the future imperative of sum, the mood of statutes and formulae: “let him be.” In 35.26 the formula keeps the words of Gaius’s model (Institutes 4.41, 4.43): sī pāret, “if it appears,” from pāreō, “to be evident,” followed by an accusative and infinitive; dare oportēre, “ought to give,” the technical phrase for a civil obligation; condemnā and absolve, present imperatives addressed to the judge in the vocative, iūdex. Gaius names a sum in sesterces where this text has pecūniam.
Other points. Diē nefāstō and diē fāstō (35.16, 35.30) are ablatives of time when. Mihi … nōn licet (35.18), “it is not permitted to me,” and nefās est praetōrem … dīcere (35.19) follow the two constructions of Varro in Section F: licet with a dative, nefās with an accusative and infinitive. Causā cognitā (35.27) is an ablative absolute, “the case having been examined,” a fixed phrase of Roman procedure. Iniūriā (35.28), the ablative of iniūria, is used as an adverb: “unjustly.” Rēs iūdicāta (35.29) is the Roman term for a matter finally decided, still used as res judicata. In 35.30 quod has no antecedent: “what (the thing that) the praetor could not say.”
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The vowel of dīcō is long in the present and the perfect (dīcō, dīcit, dīxī, dīxit) and short in the participle (dictum, dicta). Hear dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ beside dictum /ˈdik.tum/.
X is /ks/ and closes the syllable before it: dīx-it /ˈdiːk.sit/. In the perfect infinitive dīxisse the stress falls on the second syllable, which is long by position: /diːkˈsis.se/.
Fās, nefās, fāstus and nefāstus all have a long ā. Fārī, “to speak,” has a long ā as well.
Pāret, “it appears” (from pāreō), has a long ā. Do not confuse it with parat, “he prepares,” from parō.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D, F-A and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all classical citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal phrases in running English text (obiter dictum, res judicata, ius dicere) are likewise printed without macrons.
Consonantal i and u: this course writes i and v for the consonants (iūdex, vēnit). In iniūria, a compound of in- and iūs, the second i is a consonant: /inˈjuː.ri.a/.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁵ ◊ᵈⁱᶜᵒ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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