← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁶ ◊ⁱᵃᵐ
Welcome to Lesson 36 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the adverb iam, “already, now, by this time, no longer (with nōn), soon.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 34th among all Latin words. It is a small word with a large place in the law, because so much of the law turns on time: whether a sale is already complete, whether a debt has already been paid, whether a possessor has now held for the full period, whether the testator was already dead when the witnesses sealed the will. Lawyers meet it in the maxim nāscitūrus prō iam nātō habētur, “the unborn child is treated as already born,” and in every Latin narrative of facts.
What does iam mean in legal Latin?
Iam marks a point in time reached or passed. With a perfect it means “already”: pecūnia iam solūta est, “the money has already been paid.” With a present it means “now,” and, when a length of time is named, “now for so long”: iam decem annōs possidet, “he has now been in possession for ten years.” With a future it means “soon, presently.” With a negative it means “no longer”: nōn iam licet, “it is no longer permitted.” Its opposite is nōndum, “not yet.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English needs a different tense to say how long something has been going on: “he has been in possession for ten years.” Latin keeps the present tense and adds iam: iam decem annōs possidet. If you put the Latin verb into the perfect (possēdit), you say that the possession is over. English also separates “already,” “now,” “by now,” “no longer” and “soon”; Latin uses iam for all of them, and the tense of the verb, or a negative, tells you which is meant.
Etymology: the origin of iam is disputed. Lewis and Short record two views: that it is related to diem, “day,” as in the time-words prīdem, “long ago,” and dūdum, “a while ago”; or that it is a form from the pronominal stem seen in is, ea, id. It is not related to English “yet” or “already.” The old spelling jam, with j for the consonant, is found in older editions and dictionaries; this course writes iam.
Key Takeaways
⚖ Iam is an adverb and never changes its form
⚖ With the perfect, iam means “already”; with the present, “now”; with the future, “soon”; with nōn, “no longer”; its opposite is nōndum, “not yet”
⚖ Iam with a present tense and an expression of time is the Latin for the English perfect continuous: iam decem annōs possidet, “he has been in possession for ten years now”
⚖ Fixed combinations: iam prīdem, “long ago, long since”; iam diū, “for a long time now”; iam dūdum, “this long while”; iam iamque, “at any moment”; iam … iam, “now … now”; vix iam, “now scarcely”
⚖ Maxim: nāscitūrus prō iam nātō habētur, quotiēns dē commodīs eius agitur, “the unborn child is treated as already born whenever its interests are in question”
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iam /jam/: one syllable, not two. The i is a consonant, like English y in “yes”; the a is short, as in the first vowel of “aha.” Say YAHM, short and open. Do not say “eye-am,” and do not pronounce it like English “jam.”
nōndum /ˈnoːn.dum/: stress on the first syllable, which is long.
iam prīdem /jam ˈpriː.dem/, iam diū /jam ˈdi.uː/: in speech iam leans on the word that follows it and takes no stress of its own.
nāscitūrus /naːs.kiˈtuː.rus/: stress on tū, the long next-to-last syllable. The sc is /sk/, never /s/ or /ʃ/.
iūdicāta /juː.diˈkaː.ta/: the consonantal i at the start of a word is /j/, as in iam itself.
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36.1a Iam already adest he-is-present
36.1b Iam /jam/ already.ADV adest /ˈad.est/ be-present.3SG.PRES
36.2a Testis the-witness iam already adest is-present
36.2b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV adest /ˈad.est/ be-present.3SG.PRES
36.3a Iūdex the-judge iam already sedet is-sitting
36.3b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV sedet /ˈse.det/ sit.3SG.PRES
36.4a Nōn not iam any-longer licet it-is-permitted
36.4b Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV iam /jam/ now.ADV licet /ˈli.ket/ be-permitted.3SG.PRES
36.5a Rēs the-matter iam already iūdicāta judged est is
36.5b Rēs /reːs/ matter.NOM.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV iūdicāta /juː.diˈkaː.ta/ judge.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
36.6a Hērēs the-heir hērēditātem the-inheritance iam already adiit has-entered-upon
36.6b Hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG hērēditātem /heː.reː.diˈtaː.tem/ inheritance.ACC.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV adiit /ˈad.i.it/ enter-upon.3SG.PERF
36.7a Emptiō the-sale iam already perfecta completed est is perīculum the-risk ad to emptōrem the-buyer pertinet belongs
36.7b Emptiō /ˈemp.ti.oː/ sale.NOM.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV perfecta /perˈfek.ta/ complete.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES perīculum /peˈriː.ku.lum/ risk.NOM.N.SG ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC emptōrem /empˈtoː.rem/ buyer.ACC.M.SG pertinet /ˈper.ti.net/ belong.3SG.PRES
36.8a Possessor the-possessor fundum the-farm iam now decem ten annōs years possidet possesses
36.8b Possessor /posˈses.sor/ possessor.NOM.M.SG fundum /ˈfun.dum/ farm.ACC.M.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV decem /ˈde.kem/ ten.INDECL annōs /ˈan.noːs/ year.ACC.M.PL possidet /ˈpos.si.det/ possess.3SG.PRES
36.9a Haec this causa case iam now diū for-a-long-time pendet is-pending
36.9b Haec /hae̯k/ this.NOM.F.SG causa /ˈkau̯.sa/ case.NOM.F.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV pendet /ˈpen.det/ hang.3SG.PRES
36.10a Ubi when iūdex the-judge vēnit came testēs the-witnesses iam already aderant were-present
36.10b Ubi /ˈu.bi/ when.CONJ iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL iam /jam/ already.ADV aderant /ˈad.e.rant/ be-present.3PL.IMPERF
36.11a Tabelliō the-notary testāmentum the-will iam already scrīpserat had-written cum when testātor the-testator mortuus dead est is
36.11b Tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.ACC.N.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV scrīpserat /ˈskriːp.se.rat/ write.3SG.PLUPERF cum /kum/ when.CONJ testātor /tesˈtaː.tor/ testator.NOM.M.SG mortuus /ˈmor.tu.us/ die.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
36.12a Nāscitūrus the-one-about-to-be-born prō as iam already nātō born habētur is-held quotiēns whenever dē about commodīs the-interests eius of-him agitur it-is-treated
36.12b Nāscitūrus /naːs.kiˈtuː.rus/ be-born.FUT.PART.NOM.M.SG prō /proː/ as.PREP+ABL iam /jam/ already.ADV nātō /ˈnaː.toː/ be-born.PERF.PART.ABL.M.SG habētur /haˈbeː.tur/ hold.3SG.PRES.PASS quotiēns /ˈkʷo.ti.eːns/ whenever.CONJ dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL commodīs /ˈkom.mo.diːs/ advantage.ABL.N.PL eius /ˈej.jus/ he.GEN.M.SG agitur /ˈa.ɡi.tur/ act.3SG.PRES.PASS
36.13a Iam already prīdem long-ago lēx the-law lāta passed est was sed but nōndum not-yet observātur is-it-observed
36.13b Iam /jam/ already.ADV prīdem /ˈpriː.dem/ long-ago.ADV lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG lāta /ˈlaː.ta/ carry.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES sed /sed/ but.CONJ nōndum /ˈnoːn.dum/ not-yet.ADV observātur /ob.serˈwaː.tur/ observe.3SG.PRES.PASS
36.14a Sī if pecūnia the-money iam already solūta paid est is nihil nothing amplius more petī to-be-claimed potest can
36.14b Sī /siː/ if.CONJ pecūnia /peˈkuː.ni.a/ money.NOM.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV solūta /soˈluː.ta/ pay.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.NOM.N.SG amplius /ˈam.pli.us/ more.ADV petī /ˈpe.tiː/ claim.PRES.INF.PASS potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES
36.15a At but vērō truly nōs we vīcēsimum the-twentieth iam now diem day patimur allow hebēscere to-grow-blunt aciem the-edge hōrum of-these-men’s auctōritātis authority
36.15b At /at/ but.CONJ vērō /ˈweː.roː/ truly.ADV nōs /noːs/ we.NOM.PL vīcēsimum /wiːˈkeː.si.mum/ twentieth.ACC.M.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV diem /ˈdi.em/ day.ACC.M.SG patimur /ˈpa.ti.mur/ allow.1PL.PRES.DEP hebēscere /heˈbeːs.ke.re/ grow-blunt.PRES.INF aciem /ˈa.ki.em/ edge.ACC.F.SG hōrum /ˈhoː.rum/ this.GEN.M.PL auctōritātis /au̯k.toː.riˈtaː.tis/ authority.GEN.F.SG
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36.1 Iam adest. → “He is here already.”
36.2 Testis iam adest. → “The witness is already here.”
36.3 Iūdex iam sedet. → “The judge is already sitting.”
36.4 Nōn iam licet. → “It is no longer permitted.”
36.5 Rēs iam iūdicāta est. → “The matter has already been decided.”
36.6 Hērēs hērēditātem iam adiit. → “The heir has already entered upon the inheritance.”
36.7 Emptiō iam perfecta est; perīculum ad emptōrem pertinet. → “The sale is already complete; the risk belongs to the buyer.”
36.8 Possessor fundum iam decem annōs possidet. → “The possessor has now been in possession of the farm for ten years.”
36.9 Haec causa iam diū pendet. → “This case has been pending for a long time.”
36.10 Ubi iūdex vēnit, testēs iam aderant. → “When the judge came, the witnesses were already there.”
36.11 Tabelliō testāmentum iam scrīpserat, cum testātor mortuus est. → “The notary had already written the will when the testator died.”
36.12 Nāscitūrus prō iam nātō habētur, quotiēns dē commodīs eius agitur. → “The unborn child is treated as already born whenever its interests are in question.” (civil-law maxim, from the rule in Digest 1.5.7)
36.13 Iam prīdem lēx lāta est, sed nōndum observātur. → “The law was passed long ago, but it is not yet observed.”
36.14 Sī pecūnia iam solūta est, nihil amplius petī potest. → “If the money has already been paid, nothing more can be claimed.”
36.15 At vērō nōs vīcēsimum iam diem patimur hebēscere aciem hōrum auctōritātis. → “And yet for twenty days now we have been letting the edge of these men’s authority grow blunt.” (Cicero, In Catilinam 1.4)
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36.1 Iam adest.
36.2 Testis iam adest.
36.3 Iūdex iam sedet.
36.4 Nōn iam licet.
36.5 Rēs iam iūdicāta est.
36.6 Hērēs hērēditātem iam adiit.
36.7 Emptiō iam perfecta est; perīculum ad emptōrem pertinet.
36.8 Possessor fundum iam decem annōs possidet.
36.9 Haec causa iam diū pendet.
36.10 Ubi iūdex vēnit, testēs iam aderant.
36.11 Tabelliō testāmentum iam scrīpserat, cum testātor mortuus est.
36.12 Nāscitūrus prō iam nātō habētur, quotiēns dē commodīs eius agitur.
36.13 Iam prīdem lēx lāta est, sed nōndum observātur.
36.14 Sī pecūnia iam solūta est, nihil amplius petī potest.
36.15 At vērō nōs vīcēsimum iam diem patimur hebēscere aciem hōrum auctōritātis.
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These are the grammar rules for iam in Latin:
1. Form. Iam is an adverb. It has no endings, no gender and no case, and it never changes. Its meaning comes from the tense of the verb it goes with, and from any negative or other adverb joined to it.
2. Iam with the perfect: “already.” Hērēditātem iam adiit, “he has already entered upon the inheritance” (36.6); rēs iam iūdicāta est, “the matter has already been decided” (36.5); pecūnia iam solūta est, “the money has already been paid” (36.14). The same is true of a perfect participle used as an adjective: prō iam nātō, “as one already born” (36.12).
3. Iam with the pluperfect: “had already.” Testāmentum iam scrīpserat, “he had already written the will” (36.11). The pluperfect sets one past event before another.
4. Iam with the present: “now, already.” Testis iam adest, “the witness is already here” (36.2); iūdex iam sedet (36.3). With the imperfect it means “by then, already”: testēs iam aderant, “the witnesses were already there” (36.10).
5. Iam with the present and a length of time: the English perfect continuous. Where English says “has been … for,” Latin uses the present tense with iam and an accusative of extent of time: iam decem annōs possidet, “he has been in possession for ten years now” (36.8); vīcēsimum iam diem patimur, “we have been allowing it for twenty days now,” literally “we allow it now the twentieth day” (36.15). Iam diū, “for a long time now,” works the same way: haec causa iam diū pendet, “this case has long been pending” (36.9). With the imperfect the same construction gives the English pluperfect continuous: iam diū possidēbat, “he had long been in possession.”
6. Iam with the future: “soon, presently.” Iam veniet, “he will come soon.” With an imperative it means “now, at once”: iam dīc, “tell me now” (36.22).
7. Nōn iam and nōndum. Nōn iam means “no longer, not any more”: nōn iam licet, “it is no longer permitted” (36.4). Nōndum means “not yet”: nōndum observātur, “it is not yet observed” (36.13). The first says that something has stopped; the second, that it has not yet begun. Nōn iam may also be written iam nōn.
8. Fixed combinations. Iam prīdem, “long ago, long since” (36.13); iam diū, “for a long time now” (36.9); iam dūdum, “this long while”; iam tum, “even then”; iam nunc, “even now, as things now are”; iam iamque, “at any moment now”; vix iam, “now scarcely” (36.21); iam … iam, “now … now,” “at one moment … at the next” (36.19); iam vērō, “moreover, furthermore,” to begin a new point in an argument.
9. Position. Iam usually stands before the word it qualifies (iam adest, iam prīdem, iam diū), but it often follows an emphatic word, especially a number or an expression of time: vīcēsimum iam diem (36.15). In 36.8, fundum decem annōs iam possidet would be equally correct.
10. Cum inversum. In 36.11 the main clause carries the background (iam scrīpserat, “he had already written”) and the cum clause the sudden event, in the indicative (cum testātor mortuus est, “when the testator died”). This is the so-called inverted cum, and iam, or vix, in the main clause is its usual signal. It is the natural way to narrate the facts of a case in Latin. The same pattern opens the Genre Section: iam nox erat, cum servus … vēnit (36.16).
11. Other points. In 36.7 perīculum ad emptōrem pertinet states the Roman rule that once a sale is complete (emptiō perfecta), the risk of loss passes to the buyer. In 36.12 nāscitūrus is the future participle of the deponent nāscor, “the one who will be born,” and agitur is an impersonal passive: dē commodīs eius agitur, “there is a question of its interests.” In 36.13 lēx lāta est, from ferō, is the technical phrase for passing a statute: legem ferre, “to propose (and carry) a law.” In 36.14 petī is the present passive infinitive of petō, here in its legal sense, “to claim, to sue for.” In 36.15 patior, a deponent, takes an accusative and infinitive: patimur hebēscere aciem, “we allow the edge to grow blunt.”
The forms used in this lesson: iam alone, with the present (36.1–36.3, 36.8, 36.9, 36.15), the imperfect (36.10), the perfect (36.5–36.7, 36.14), the pluperfect (36.11), with a participle (36.12), and in the combinations nōn iam (36.4), iam diū (36.9), iam prīdem (36.13); in the Genre Section also iam with an imperative (36.22, 36.23), iam … iam (36.19) and vix iam (36.21).
Common Mistakes
Pronouncing iam as two syllables or with an English j: ✗ “EYE-am,” ✗ “jam.” Say /jam/, one syllable, with y as in “yes.”
Putting the verb into the perfect with iam diū or a length of time when the state still continues: ✗ fundum iam decem annōs possēdit, for “he has been in possession for ten years.” The perfect says the possession has ended. Use the present: iam decem annōs possidet.
Confusing nōn iam with nōndum: nōn iam licet, “it is no longer permitted”; nōndum licet, “it is not yet permitted.” In a statute or a contract the difference is the whole point.
Confusing iam and nunc. Nunc means “now” as opposed to then, the present moment simply; iam means “now” as a point reached, “by now, at last, already.” Nunc testis adest, “the witness is present now”; iam testis adest, “the witness is now (already) here.”
Mistranslating English “yet.” In a question, where “yet” means “already,” Latin uses iam: iamne pecūnia solūta est?, “has the money been paid yet?” But “not yet” is always nōndum, never ✗ nōn iam.
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Nasciturus pro iam nato habetur
The maxim nasciturus pro iam nato habetur, quotiens de commodis eius agitur (36.12) is the civilians’ summary of a rule stated by the jurist Paul in the Digest (1.5.7): a child in the womb is protected as if it were already among living persons whenever the question concerns its own advantage. The maxim is not the wording of the Digest itself but the form in which later lawyers learned it. The fiction works only in the child’s favour: it lets a child conceived before the death of its father inherit from him, but it does not burden the unborn child with liabilities. The rule passed into the civil codes of Europe and Latin America and is still cited, under the name of the nasciturus rule, in modern courts.
Emptio perfecta and the passing of risk
In Roman law, once a sale was complete (emptiō perfecta), the risk of accidental loss passed to the buyer, even before delivery: periculum est emptoris (36.7). Whether the sale is “already” complete is therefore a question with money attached. The same question returns in every modern system that asks when risk or property passes.
Iam decem annos possidet
Time runs in favour of the possessor. Roman usucapiō and the later longi temporis praescriptiō allowed a possessor in good faith who had held for the required period to acquire ownership or to defend his holding. A Latin pleading states such a period with iam and the present: iam decem annōs possidet (36.8), “he has now held for ten years.” The ten years of the example are illustrative; the periods required changed over the history of Roman law.
Res iam iudicata
Res iūdicāta, “a matter decided,” was the Roman bar against bringing the same claim again. Example 36.5 adds iam to the technical phrase to make the point of the plea: the matter has already been decided, and it cannot be decided twice.
Iam pridem oportebat
Cicero’s First Speech against Catiline was delivered to the Senate in November 63 BC, while Cicero was consul. The Senate had already passed its “final decree” (senātūs cōnsultum ultimum), directing the consuls to see that the state came to no harm. In 36.15 Cicero complains that the Senate has for twenty days now let the edge of that authority grow blunt; in Section F he tells Catiline that he ought to have been put to death by order of the consul long ago. Whether a consul might put citizens to death without trial on the strength of such a decree was a legal question, not only a political one. When Cicero later had the captured conspirators executed, it was turned against him: he was driven into exile in 58 BC.
The tabellio
The tabelliō of the Genre Section was the professional drafter of documents in the Roman world, the ancestor of the civil-law notary. The office grew in importance in the later Empire and was regulated by legislation of Justinian. The notary public of the civil-law systems descends from him, and the word notārius itself first meant a shorthand writer.
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The following passage is from the opening of Cicero’s First Speech against Catiline (In Catilinam I, 1–2), delivered in the Senate in November 63 BC. Cicero, as consul, accuses Lucius Sergius Catilina, who was present, of a conspiracy against the state. In these lines iam appears three times, with three different tenses: with a perfect participle (constrictam iam, “already bound”), with an imperfect of obligation (iam pridem oportebat, “it ought long ago”), and with a present (iam diu machinaris, “you have long been contriving”). The text is printed as in the Latin Library edition. The words omnes iam diu stand in square brackets there, because some editors regard them as doubtful; other editions print the clause as quam tu in nos machinaris. The two passages are separated by Cicero’s exclamation “O tempora, o mores!” and the sentences that follow it, which are left out.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Patēre to-lie-open tua your cōnsilia plans nōn not sentīs do-you-perceive
F.1b Patēre /paˈteː.re/ lie-open.PRES.INF tua /ˈtu.a/ your.ACC.N.PL cōnsilia /koːnˈsi.li.a/ plan.ACC.N.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV sentīs /ˈsen.tiːs/ perceive.2SG.PRES
F.2a cōnstrictam bound-fast iam already hōrum of-these omnium all scientiā by-the-knowledge tenērī to-be-held coniūrātiōnem the-conspiracy tuam your nōn not vidēs do-you-see
F.2b cōnstrictam /koːnˈstrik.tam/ bind.PERF.PART.PASS.ACC.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV hōrum /ˈhoː.rum/ this.GEN.M.PL omnium /ˈom.ni.um/ all.GEN.M.PL scientiā /skiˈen.ti.aː/ knowledge.ABL.F.SG tenērī /teˈneː.riː/ hold.PRES.INF.PASS coniūrātiōnem /kon.juː.raː.tiˈoː.nem/ conspiracy.ACC.F.SG tuam /ˈtu.am/ your.ACC.F.SG nōn /noːn/ not.ADV vidēs /ˈwi.deːs/ see.2SG.PRES
F.3a Ad to mortem death tē you Catilīna Catiline dūcī to-be-led iussū by-order cōnsulis of-the-consul iam already prīdem long-ago oportēbat it-was-proper
F.3b Ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC mortem /ˈmor.tem/ death.ACC.F.SG tē /teː/ you.ACC.SG Catilīna /ka.tiˈliː.na/ Catiline.VOC.M.SG dūcī /ˈduː.kiː/ lead.PRES.INF.PASS iussū /ˈjus.suː/ order.ABL.M.SG cōnsulis /ˈkoːn.su.lis/ consul.GEN.M.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV prīdem /ˈpriː.dem/ long-ago.ADV oportēbat /o.porˈteː.bat/ be-proper.3SG.IMPERF
F.4a in upon tē you cōnferrī to-be-brought pestem the-ruin quam which tū you in against nōs us omnēs all iam now diū for-a-long-time māchināris are-contriving
F.4b in /in/ upon.PREP+ACC tē /teː/ you.ACC.SG cōnferrī /koːnˈfer.riː/ bring.PRES.INF.PASS pestem /ˈpes.tem/ ruin.ACC.F.SG quam /kʷam/ which.ACC.F.SG tū /tuː/ you.NOM.SG in /in/ against.PREP+ACC nōs /noːs/ we.ACC.PL omnēs /ˈom.neːs/ all.ACC.M.PL iam /jam/ now.ADV diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV māchināris /maː.kʰiˈnaː.ris/ contrive.2SG.PRES.DEP
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Patere tua consilia non sentis, constrictam iam horum omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? … Ad mortem te, Catilina, duci iussu consulis iam pridem oportebat, in te conferri pestem, quam tu in nos [omnes iam diu] machinaris.
→ “Do you not perceive that your plans lie open? Do you not see that your conspiracy is already held fast, bound by the knowledge of all these men? … You ought long ago, Catiline, to have been led to death by order of the consul; the ruin which you have long been contriving against us all ought to have been brought down upon you.”
— Cicero, In Catilinam I, 1–2 (63 BC)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Patere tua consilia non sentis, constrictam iam horum omnium scientia teneri coniurationem tuam non vides? … Ad mortem te, Catilina, duci iussu consulis iam pridem oportebat, in te conferri pestem, quam tu in nos [omnes iam diu] machinaris.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. F.1 and F.2 are two questions without a question word; the tone and the repeated nōn make them indignant: “Do you not perceive …? Do you not see …?” Each verb of perceiving takes an accusative and infinitive: cōnsilia patēre, “that your plans lie open”; coniūrātiōnem tenērī, “that your conspiracy is held.” Cōnstrictam is a perfect participle agreeing with coniūrātiōnem, and iam belongs to it: “already bound fast.” In F.3, oportēbat with a present infinitive, in a past tense, expresses what ought to have happened and did not: tē dūcī oportēbat, “you ought to have been led.” Iam prīdem pushes the obligation far back: “long since.” Iussū, “by order,” is an ablative found almost only in this form, with a genitive of the person: iussū cōnsulis. In F.4 the infinitive cōnferrī depends on the same oportēbat. In the relative clause, iam diū with the present māchināris is exactly the construction of Section D, rule 5: “which you have been contriving for a long time now.” Māchinor is a deponent verb, passive in form and active in meaning.
Commentary. The opening of the First Catilinarian is among the most famous passages of Latin prose, and its argument is a lawyer’s argument about time. The consul has the authority (the Senate’s decree, 36.15); the facts are known (cōnstrictam iam … scientiā); what is wrong is the delay. Three times iam measures how late it already is. The careful listener will notice that Cicero does not yet act: he speaks, and Catiline leaves Rome. The legal question that Cicero’s words pass over, whether a consul may put a citizen to death without a trial, came back to him five years later, when he was exiled for executing the conspirators. The spelling in F-B and F-C is that of the edition, without macrons.
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The protocol assigns action narrative to adverbs. A dying man sends for the notary in the night; the will must be written and sealed before he dies; afterwards his brother challenges it, and the question in court is one of time: was the testator already dead? The persons carry the stock names of the jurists’ examples: Seius the testator, Maevius the heir, and the tabelliō, the Roman drafter of documents. The text is a pedagogical composition, not a quotation. The words of institution in 36.23, Maevius hērēs estō, follow the solemn form of a Roman will, of the type Titius hērēs estō, “let Titius be heir,” which Gaius gives in his Institutes (2.117). The narrative simplifies the formalities of a Roman will.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
36.16a Iam already nox night erat it-was cum when servus a-slave ad to tabelliōnem the-notary currēns running vēnit came
36.16b Iam /jam/ already.ADV nox /noks/ night.NOM.F.SG erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF cum /kum/ when.CONJ servus /ˈser.wus/ slave.NOM.M.SG ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC tabelliōnem /ta.bel.liˈoː.nem/ notary.ACC.M.SG currēns /ˈkur.reːns/ run.PRES.PART.NOM.M.SG vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF
36.17a Venī come quaesō please statim at-once Dominus master meus my iam now moritur is-dying
36.17b Venī /ˈwe.niː/ come.2SG.PRES.IMPER quaesō /ˈkʷae̯.soː/ beg.1SG.PRES statim /ˈsta.tim/ at-once.ADV Dominus /ˈdo.mi.nus/ master.NOM.M.SG meus /ˈme.us/ my.NOM.M.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV moritur /ˈmo.ri.tur/ die.3SG.PRES.DEP
36.18a Tabelliō the-notary tabulās tablets et and stilum stylus rapuit seized et and iam already in on viā the-road erat he-was
36.18b Tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG tabulās /ˈta.bu.laːs/ tablet.ACC.F.PL et /et/ and.CONJ stilum /ˈsti.lum/ stylus.ACC.M.SG rapuit /ˈra.pu.it/ seize.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ iam /jam/ already.ADV in /in/ in.PREP+ABL viā /ˈwi.aː/ road.ABL.F.SG erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF
36.19a Iam now pluēbat it-was-raining iam now ventus the-wind flābat was-blowing sed but nōn not cōnstitērunt did-they-stop
36.19b Iam /jam/ now.ADV pluēbat /pluˈeː.bat/ rain.3SG.IMPERF iam /jam/ now.ADV ventus /ˈwen.tus/ wind.NOM.M.SG flābat /ˈflaː.bat/ blow.3SG.IMPERF sed /sed/ but.CONJ nōn /noːn/ not.ADV cōnstitērunt /koːn.stiˈteː.runt/ stop.3PL.PERF
36.20a Ubi when ad to domum the-house Seiī of-Seius pervēnērunt they-arrived testēs the-witnesses iam already exspectābant were-waiting
36.20b Ubi /ˈu.bi/ when.CONJ ad /ad/ to.PREP+ACC domum /ˈdo.mum/ house.ACC.F.SG Seiī /ˈsej.jiː/ Seius.GEN.M.SG pervēnērunt /per.weːˈneː.runt/ arrive.3PL.PERF testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL iam /jam/ already.ADV exspectābant /eks.spekˈtaː.bant/ wait.3PL.IMPERF
36.21a Seius Seius vix scarcely iam now loquī to-speak poterat was-able sed but sānae of-sound mentis mind erat he-was
36.21b Seius /ˈsej.jus/ Seius.NOM.M.SG vix /wiks/ scarcely.ADV iam /jam/ now.ADV loquī /ˈlo.kʷiː/ speak.PRES.INF.DEP poterat /ˈpo.te.rat/ be-able.3SG.IMPERF sed /sed/ but.CONJ sānae /ˈsaː.nae̯/ sound.GEN.F.SG mentis /ˈmen.tis/ mind.GEN.F.SG erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF
36.22a Iam now dīc tell mihi me inquit said tabelliō the-notary quem whom hērēdem heir esse to-be vīs do-you-wish
36.22b Iam /jam/ now.ADV dīc /diːk/ say.2SG.PRES.IMPER mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG inquit /ˈiŋ.kʷit/ say.3SG.PRES tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG quem /kʷem/ whom.ACC.M.SG hērēdem /heːˈreː.dem/ heir.ACC.M.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF vīs /wiːs/ wish.2SG.PRES
36.23a Seius Seius susurrāvit whispered Iam now scrībe write Maevius Maevius hērēs heir estō let-be
36.23b Seius /ˈsej.jus/ Seius.NOM.M.SG susurrāvit /su.surˈraː.wit/ whisper.3SG.PERF Iam /jam/ now.ADV scrībe /ˈskriː.be/ write.2SG.PRES.IMPER Maevius /ˈmae̯.wi.us/ Maevius.NOM.M.SG hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG estō /ˈes.toː/ be.3SG.FUT.IMPER
36.24a Tabelliō the-notary celeriter quickly scrīpsit wrote et and iam now tabulae the-tablets parātae ready erant were
36.24b Tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG celeriter /keˈle.ri.ter/ quickly.ADV scrīpsit /ˈskriːp.sit/ write.3SG.PERF et /et/ and.CONJ iam /jam/ now.ADV tabulae /ˈta.bu.lae̯/ tablet.NOM.F.PL parātae /paˈraː.tae̯/ prepare.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.PL erant /ˈe.rant/ be.3PL.IMPERF
36.25a Testēs the-witnesses tabulās the-tablets signāvērunt sealed iam now nihil nothing deerat was-lacking
36.25b Testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL tabulās /ˈta.bu.laːs/ tablet.ACC.F.PL signāvērunt /siŋ.naːˈweː.runt/ seal.3PL.PERF iam /jam/ now.ADV nihil /ˈni.hil/ nothing.NOM.N.SG deerat /ˈde.e.rat/ be-lacking.3SG.IMPERF
36.26a Paulō a-little post afterwards Seius Seius mortuus dead est is sed but tabulae the-tablets iam already signātae sealed erant had-been
36.26b Paulō /ˈpau̯.loː/ little.ABL.N.SG post /post/ afterwards.ADV Seius /ˈsej.jus/ Seius.NOM.M.SG mortuus /ˈmor.tu.us/ die.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES sed /sed/ but.CONJ tabulae /ˈta.bu.lae̯/ tablet.NOM.F.PL iam /jam/ already.ADV signātae /siŋˈnaː.tae̯/ seal.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.PL erant /ˈe.rant/ be.3PL.IMPERF
36.27a Posteā afterwards frāter the-brother Seiī of-Seius quī who hērēditātem the-inheritance iam already suam his-own esse to-be putābat was-thinking testāmentum the-will nūllum void esse to-be dīxit said
36.27b Posteā /ˈpos.te.aː/ afterwards.ADV frāter /ˈfraː.ter/ brother.NOM.M.SG Seiī /ˈsej.jiː/ Seius.GEN.M.SG quī /kʷiː/ who.NOM.M.SG hērēditātem /heː.reː.diˈtaː.tem/ inheritance.ACC.F.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV suam /ˈsu.am/ his-own.ACC.F.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF putābat /puˈtaː.bat/ think.3SG.IMPERF testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.ACC.N.SG nūllum /ˈnuːl.lum/ none.ACC.N.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
36.28a Sed but iūdex the-judge rogāvit asked Erat was Seius Seius iam already mortuus dead cum when testēs the-witnesses signāvērunt sealed
36.28b Sed /sed/ but.CONJ iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG rogāvit /roˈɡaː.wit/ ask.3SG.PERF Erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF Seius /ˈsej.jus/ Seius.NOM.M.SG iam /jam/ already.ADV mortuus /ˈmor.tu.us/ die.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG cum /kum/ when.CONJ testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL signāvērunt /siŋ.naːˈweː.runt/ seal.3PL.PERF
36.29a Testēs the-witnesses respondērunt replied Nōndum not-yet mortuus dead erat he-was iam by-then tamen however vix scarcely loquēbātur was-he-speaking
36.29b Testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.NOM.M.PL respondērunt /re.sponˈdeː.runt/ answer.3PL.PERF Nōndum /ˈnoːn.dum/ not-yet.ADV mortuus /ˈmor.tu.us/ die.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG erat /ˈe.rat/ be.3SG.IMPERF iam /jam/ now.ADV tamen /ˈta.men/ however.ADV vix /wiks/ scarcely.ADV loquēbātur /lo.kʷeːˈbaː.tur/ speak.3SG.IMPERF.DEP
36.30a Itaque therefore iūdex the-judge prōnūntiāvit declared Testāmentum the-will valet is-valid Maevius Maevius iam now hērēs heir est is
36.30b Itaque /ˈi.ta.kʷe/ therefore.ADV iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG prōnūntiāvit /proː.nuːn.tiˈaː.wit/ declare.3SG.PERF Testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.NOM.N.SG valet /ˈwa.let/ be-valid.3SG.PRES Maevius /ˈmae̯.wi.us/ Maevius.NOM.M.SG iam /jam/ now.ADV hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
Part B: Natural Sentences
36.16 Iam nox erat, cum servus ad tabelliōnem currēns vēnit. → “It was already night when a slave came running to the notary.”
36.17 “Venī, quaesō, statim! Dominus meus iam moritur.” → “‘Come at once, please! My master is dying.’”
36.18 Tabelliō tabulās et stilum rapuit et iam in viā erat. → “The notary seized his tablets and stylus, and in a moment he was on the road.”
36.19 Iam pluēbat, iam ventus flābat, sed nōn cōnstitērunt. → “Now it was raining, now the wind was blowing, but they did not stop.”
36.20 Ubi ad domum Seiī pervēnērunt, testēs iam exspectābant. → “When they reached the house of Seius, the witnesses were already waiting.”
36.21 Seius vix iam loquī poterat, sed sānae mentis erat. → “Seius could now scarcely speak, but he was of sound mind.”
36.22 “Iam dīc mihi,” inquit tabelliō, “quem hērēdem esse vīs?” → “‘Now tell me,’ said the notary, ‘whom do you wish to be your heir?’”
36.23 Seius susurrāvit: “Iam scrībe: Maevius hērēs estō.” → “Seius whispered: ‘Write now: Let Maevius be heir.’”
36.24 Tabelliō celeriter scrīpsit, et iam tabulae parātae erant. → “The notary wrote quickly, and now the tablets were ready.”
36.25 Testēs tabulās signāvērunt; iam nihil deerat. → “The witnesses sealed the tablets; now nothing was lacking.”
36.26 Paulō post Seius mortuus est, sed tabulae iam signātae erant. → “A little later Seius died, but the tablets had already been sealed.”
36.27 Posteā frāter Seiī, quī hērēditātem iam suam esse putābat, testāmentum nūllum esse dīxit. → “Afterwards Seius’s brother, who thought the inheritance was already his, said that the will was void.”
36.28 Sed iūdex rogāvit: “Erat Seius iam mortuus, cum testēs signāvērunt?” → “But the judge asked: ‘Was Seius already dead when the witnesses sealed?’”
36.29 Testēs respondērunt: “Nōndum mortuus erat; iam tamen vix loquēbātur.” → “The witnesses replied: ‘He was not yet dead; but by then he could scarcely speak.’”
36.30 Itaque iūdex prōnūntiāvit: “Testāmentum valet; Maevius iam hērēs est.” → “Therefore the judge declared: ‘The will is valid; Maevius is now the heir.’”
Part C: Latin Text Only
36.16 Iam nox erat, cum servus ad tabelliōnem currēns vēnit.
36.17 “Venī, quaesō, statim! Dominus meus iam moritur.”
36.18 Tabelliō tabulās et stilum rapuit et iam in viā erat.
36.19 Iam pluēbat, iam ventus flābat, sed nōn cōnstitērunt.
36.20 Ubi ad domum Seiī pervēnērunt, testēs iam exspectābant.
36.21 Seius vix iam loquī poterat, sed sānae mentis erat.
36.22 “Iam dīc mihi,” inquit tabelliō, “quem hērēdem esse vīs?”
36.23 Seius susurrāvit: “Iam scrībe: Maevius hērēs estō.”
36.24 Tabelliō celeriter scrīpsit, et iam tabulae parātae erant.
36.25 Testēs tabulās signāvērunt; iam nihil deerat.
36.26 Paulō post Seius mortuus est, sed tabulae iam signātae erant.
36.27 Posteā frāter Seiī, quī hērēditātem iam suam esse putābat, testāmentum nūllum esse dīxit.
36.28 Sed iūdex rogāvit: “Erat Seius iam mortuus, cum testēs signāvērunt?”
36.29 Testēs respondērunt: “Nōndum mortuus erat; iam tamen vix loquēbātur.”
36.30 Itaque iūdex prōnūntiāvit: “Testāmentum valet; Maevius iam hērēs est.”
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The narrative runs iam through its senses. “Already,” with the imperfect and pluperfect of the background: iam nox erat (36.16), testēs iam exspectābant (36.20), tabulae iam signātae erant (36.26). “Now, at this point,” marking a stage reached in the action: iam in viā erat (36.18), iam tabulae parātae erant (36.24), iam nihil deerat (36.25), Maevius iam hērēs est (36.30). “Now, at once,” with an imperative: iam dīc (36.22), iam scrībe (36.23). With the present of something under way: iam moritur, “he is dying,” is near its end (36.17). Repeated, iam … iam, “now … now” (36.19). With vix: vix iam, “now scarcely” (36.21). And the question on which the case turns sets iam against nōndum: erat Seius iam mortuus? — nōndum mortuus erat (36.28, 36.29).
Cum inversum. 36.16 is the classic form: the main clause gives the situation (iam nox erat), the cum clause, in the indicative, the sudden event (cum servus … vēnit). In 36.28 cum with the perfect indicative is simply temporal: “when the witnesses sealed.”
The will. Maevius hērēs estō (36.23) is a future imperative of sum, the mood of statutes and of the Roman will; in the words of institution the heir is named in the nominative. Gaius (Institutes 2.117) gives Titius hērēs estō as the solemn form, and says that Titium hērēdem esse volō, “I wish Titius to be heir,” is not approved. That is why the notary, who asks quem hērēdem esse vīs? (36.22), writes down the solemn form and not the testator’s wish in his own words. Sānae mentis (36.21) is a genitive of quality, “of sound mind,” the phrase still found in English wills. Testāmentum nūllum esse (36.27): nūllus, “none,” said of an act in law, means “void,” as in Lesson 35. Valet (36.30), “is strong,” said of an act in law, means “is valid.”
Other points. Currēns (36.16) is the present participle of currō, agreeing with servus: “running.” Moritur (36.17) and loquēbātur (36.29) are deponent verbs, passive in form, active in meaning; mortuus est (36.26) is the perfect of morior, so that mortuus erat (36.29) is “he had died, he was dead.” Deerat (36.25), from dēsum, “be lacking,” is pronounced in three syllables, de-e-rat, or in verse often in two. Paulō post (36.26), “a little later,” uses the ablative of degree of difference. In 36.27 the relative clause carries an accusative and infinitive of its own: hērēditātem suam esse putābat, “he thought that the inheritance was his.”
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Iam is one syllable, /jam/. The same consonantal i begins iūdex, iūs, iussū and iūdicāta, and stands between vowels in eius /ˈej.jus/ and Seius /ˈsej.jus/, where it is pronounced double.
The a of iam is short, so iam carries no macron. Do not confuse it with the long ā of nāscor and nātus (36.12).
The gn of signāvērunt and signātae is pronounced /ŋn/, as in cognitā in Lesson 35: /siŋ.naːˈweː.runt/.
The ch of māchināris (Section F) represents a Greek aspirate, /kʰ/; in practice most speakers say /k/.
Spelling: older editions and dictionaries print jam, with j for the consonant; Lewis and Short list the word under jam. This course writes i for the consonant (iam, iūdex) and v for consonantal u (vīcēsimum, vix).
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D, F-A and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all classical citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal maxims and phrases in running English text (nasciturus pro iam nato habetur, res iudicata, emptio perfecta) are likewise printed without macrons.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁶ ◊ⁱᵃᵐ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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