← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁷ ◊atque
Welcome to Lesson 37 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the conjunction atque, “and, and also, and indeed.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 35th among all Latin words. Its shorter form, ac, follows it on the list and is the subject of the next lesson. Atque is the “and” of the lawyer’s pairs: Gaius defines a statute as quod populus iubet atque constituit, “what the people commands and establishes,” and Ulpian defines legal learning as divinarum atque humanarum rerum notitia, iusti atque iniusti scientia, “the knowledge of things divine and human, the science of the just and the unjust.”
What does atque mean in legal Latin?
Atque joins two words, phrases or clauses that belong closely together: iūs atque aequitās, “law and equity”; scrīpsit atque recitāvit, “he wrote and read aloud.” It often adds the second item with some weight, “and also, and indeed.” After a word of likeness or of difference it has a second meaning: after īdem, “the same,” it means “as”; after alius or aliter, “other, otherwise,” it means “than.” Simul atque means “as soon as.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English has one “and.” Latin has four in common use: et, -que, atque and ac. Et simply adds one thing to another. -que, attached to the second word, joins things that form a pair or a whole (senātus populusque). Atque, according to Lewis and Short, marks a close inner connection and often adds the second item as something more: “and also, and even.” English also says “the same as” and “other than,” with two different words; Latin uses atque for both, and the word before it (īdem or alius) tells you which is meant.
Etymology: atque is at + -que, “and besides.” Before a consonant classical Latin often shortens it to ac; before a vowel or h only atque is used. Do not confuse it with at, “but,” or with atquī, “and yet, but”: atque always joins and never opposes.
Key Takeaways
⚖ Atque is a conjunction and never changes its form
⚖ It means “and, and also, and indeed”; it joins things closely connected, often in pairs: iubet atque cōnstituit
⚖ After īdem, pār, aequē it means “as”: eadem iūra atque dēfūnctus, “the same rights as the deceased”
⚖ After alius, aliter, secus, contrā it means “than”: aliter atque lēgēs iubent, “otherwise than the laws command”
⚖ Simul atque means “as soon as”; atque adeō, “and indeed, and what is more”; its short form ac stands only before consonants
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atque /ˈat.kʷe/: two syllables, stress on the first. Say AT-kweh. The qu is /kʷ/, a k with rounded lips, as in English “quick”; the final e is short, as in “bet.”
aequitās /ˈae̯.kʷi.taːs/: the ae is a diphthong, like English “eye”; stress on the first syllable.
simul atque /ˈsi.mul ˈat.kʷe/: in speech the two words run together; in verse the final e of atque is elided before a vowel.
plēbiscītum /pleː.bisˈkiː.tum/: stress on the long cī; the sc is /sk/.
cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/: four syllables, stress on sti.
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37.1a Iūs law atque and aequitās equity
37.1b Iūs /juːs/ law.NOM.N.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ aequitās /ˈae̯.kʷi.taːs/ equity.NOM.F.SG
37.2a Iūdex the-judge atque and arbiter the-arbiter adsunt are-present
37.2b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ arbiter /ˈar.bi.ter/ arbiter.NOM.M.SG adsunt /ˈad.sunt/ be-present.3PL.PRES
37.3a Lēgēs the-laws atque and mōrēs the-customs valent are-in-force
37.3b Lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.NOM.F.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ mōrēs /ˈmoː.reːs/ custom.NOM.M.PL valent /ˈwa.lent/ be-strong.3PL.PRES
37.4a Testis the-witness vēnit came atque and iūrāvit swore
37.4b Testis /ˈtes.tis/ witness.NOM.M.SG vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ iūrāvit /juːˈraː.wit/ swear.3SG.PERF
37.5a Emptor the-buyer atque and venditor the-seller cōnsentiunt agree
37.5b Emptor /ˈemp.tor/ buyer.NOM.M.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ venditor /ˈwen.di.tor/ seller.NOM.M.SG cōnsentiunt /koːnˈsen.ti.unt/ agree.3PL.PRES
37.6a Tabelliō the-notary instrūmentum the-document scrīpsit wrote atque and recitāvit read-aloud
37.6b Tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG instrūmentum /in.struːˈmen.tum/ document.ACC.N.SG scrīpsit /ˈskriːp.sit/ write.3SG.PERF atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ recitāvit /re.kiˈtaː.wit/ read-aloud.3SG.PERF
37.7a Ēdictum the-edict praetōris of-the-praetor clārum clear atque and apertum open esse to-be dēbet ought
37.7b Ēdictum /eːˈdik.tum/ edict.NOM.N.SG praetōris /prae̯ˈtoː.ris/ praetor.GEN.M.SG clārum /ˈklaː.rum/ clear.NOM.N.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ apertum /aˈper.tum/ open.NOM.N.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES
37.8a Reus the-defendant diū long atque and dīligenter carefully dēfēnsus defended est was
37.8b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG diū /ˈdi.uː/ long.ADV atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV dēfēnsus /deːˈfeːn.sus/ defend.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
37.9a Simul at-the-same-time atque as iūdex the-judge cōnsēdit took-his-seat advocātus the-advocate dīcere to-speak coepit began
37.9b Simul /ˈsi.mul/ at-the-same-time.ADV atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG cōnsēdit /koːnˈseː.dit/ sit-down.3SG.PERF advocātus /ad.woˈkaː.tus/ advocate.NOM.M.SG dīcere /ˈdiː.ke.re/ speak.PRES.INF coepit /ˈkoe̯.pit/ begin.3SG.PERF
37.10a Haec this stipulātiō stipulation alia other est is atque than prior the-earlier-one
37.10b Haec /hae̯k/ this.NOM.F.SG stipulātiō /sti.puˈlaː.ti.oː/ stipulation.NOM.F.SG alia /ˈa.li.a/ other.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ than.CONJ prior /ˈpri.or/ earlier.COMP.NOM.F.SG
37.11a Venditor the-seller simul at-the-same-time atque as pretium the-price accēpit he-has-received rem the-thing emptōrī to-the-buyer trādere to-deliver dēbet ought
37.11b Venditor /ˈwen.di.tor/ seller.NOM.M.SG simul /ˈsi.mul/ at-the-same-time.ADV atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ pretium /ˈpre.ti.um/ price.ACC.N.SG accēpit /akˈkeː.pit/ receive.3SG.PERF rem /rem/ thing.ACC.F.SG emptōrī /empˈtoː.riː/ buyer.DAT.M.SG trādere /ˈtraː.de.re/ deliver.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES
37.12a Hērēs the-heir eadem the-same iūra rights habet has atque as dēfūnctus the-deceased habuit had
37.12b Hērēs /ˈheː.reːs/ heir.NOM.M.SG eadem /ˈe.a.dem/ same.ACC.N.PL iūra /ˈjuː.ra/ right.ACC.N.PL habet /ˈha.bet/ have.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ dēfūnctus /deːˈfuːŋk.tus/ die.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG habuit /ˈha.bu.it/ have.3SG.PERF
37.13a Testāmentum the-will ā by testātōre the-testator scrīptum written atque and ā by testibus the-witnesses signātum sealed est was
37.13b Testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.NOM.N.SG ā /aː/ by.PREP+ABL testātōre /tes.taːˈtoː.re/ testator.ABL.M.SG scrīptum /ˈskriːp.tum/ write.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ ā /aː/ by.PREP+ABL testibus /ˈtes.ti.bus/ witness.ABL.M.PL signātum /siŋˈnaː.tum/ seal.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
37.14a Nēmō no-one aliter otherwise iūdicāre to-judge dēbet ought atque than lēgēs the-laws iubent command
37.14b Nēmō /ˈneː.moː/ no-one.NOM.M.SG aliter /ˈa.li.ter/ otherwise.ADV iūdicāre /juː.diˈkaː.re/ judge.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ than.CONJ lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.NOM.F.PL iubent /ˈju.bent/ order.3PL.PRES
37.15a Iūris of-law prūdentia the-knowledge est is dīvīnārum of-divine atque and hūmānārum human rērum things nōtitia the-acquaintance iūstī of-the-just atque and iniūstī of-the-unjust scientia the-science
37.15b Iūris /ˈjuː.ris/ law.GEN.N.SG prūdentia /pruːˈden.ti.a/ knowledge.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES dīvīnārum /diː.wiːˈnaː.rum/ divine.GEN.F.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ hūmānārum /huː.maːˈnaː.rum/ human.GEN.F.PL rērum /ˈreː.rum/ thing.GEN.F.PL nōtitia /noːˈti.ti.a/ acquaintance.NOM.F.SG iūstī /ˈjuːs.tiː/ just.GEN.N.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ iniūstī /inˈjuːs.tiː/ unjust.GEN.N.SG scientia /skiˈen.ti.a/ knowledge.NOM.F.SG
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37.1 Iūs atque aequitās. → “Law and equity.”
37.2 Iūdex atque arbiter adsunt. → “The judge and the arbiter are present.”
37.3 Lēgēs atque mōrēs valent. → “The laws and the customs are in force.”
37.4 Testis vēnit atque iūrāvit. → “The witness came and took the oath.”
37.5 Emptor atque venditor cōnsentiunt. → “The buyer and the seller agree.”
37.6 Tabelliō instrūmentum scrīpsit atque recitāvit. → “The notary wrote the document and read it aloud.”
37.7 Ēdictum praetōris clārum atque apertum esse dēbet. → “The praetor’s edict ought to be clear and open.”
37.8 Reus diū atque dīligenter dēfēnsus est. → “The defendant was defended at length and with care.”
37.9 Simul atque iūdex cōnsēdit, advocātus dīcere coepit. → “As soon as the judge had taken his seat, the advocate began to speak.”
37.10 Haec stipulātiō alia est atque prior. → “This stipulation is different from the earlier one.”
37.11 Venditor, simul atque pretium accēpit, rem emptōrī trādere dēbet. → “As soon as the seller has received the price, he must deliver the thing to the buyer.”
37.12 Hērēs eadem iūra habet atque dēfūnctus habuit. → “The heir has the same rights as the deceased had.”
37.13 Testāmentum ā testātōre scrīptum atque ā testibus signātum est. → “The will was written by the testator and sealed by the witnesses.”
37.14 Nēmō aliter iūdicāre dēbet atque lēgēs iubent. → “No one ought to judge otherwise than the laws command.”
37.15 Iūris prūdentia est dīvīnārum atque hūmānārum rērum nōtitia, iūstī atque iniūstī scientia. → “Legal learning is the knowledge of things divine and human, the science of the just and the unjust.” (Ulpian, Digest 1.1.10.2)
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37.1 Iūs atque aequitās.
37.2 Iūdex atque arbiter adsunt.
37.3 Lēgēs atque mōrēs valent.
37.4 Testis vēnit atque iūrāvit.
37.5 Emptor atque venditor cōnsentiunt.
37.6 Tabelliō instrūmentum scrīpsit atque recitāvit.
37.7 Ēdictum praetōris clārum atque apertum esse dēbet.
37.8 Reus diū atque dīligenter dēfēnsus est.
37.9 Simul atque iūdex cōnsēdit, advocātus dīcere coepit.
37.10 Haec stipulātiō alia est atque prior.
37.11 Venditor, simul atque pretium accēpit, rem emptōrī trādere dēbet.
37.12 Hērēs eadem iūra habet atque dēfūnctus habuit.
37.13 Testāmentum ā testātōre scrīptum atque ā testibus signātum est.
37.14 Nēmō aliter iūdicāre dēbet atque lēgēs iubent.
37.15 Iūris prūdentia est dīvīnārum atque hūmānārum rērum nōtitia, iūstī atque iniūstī scientia.
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These are the grammar rules for atque in Latin:
1. Form. Atque is a coordinating conjunction. It has no endings and never changes. It is made of at and the enclitic -que, and it stands between the two things it joins, never attached to a word as -que is.
2. Atque and ac. Before a vowel or h only atque is used: iūs atque aequitās (37.1), vēnit atque iūrāvit (37.4). Before a consonant classical writers use either atque or the shortened form ac: lēgēs atque mōrēs (37.3), but also lēgēs ac mōrēs. Ac is never written before a vowel. Ac is the subject of Lesson 38.
3. What atque joins. Like et, atque joins words of the same kind and in the same construction: two nouns in the same case (37.1, 37.3), two verbs in the same tense (37.4, 37.6), two adjectives agreeing with the same noun (clārum atque apertum, 37.7), two adverbs (diū atque dīligenter, 37.8), two participles (scrīptum atque signātum, 37.13), or two whole clauses (37.20, 37.26).
4. The force of atque. Where et simply adds, atque binds closely and often adds the second item with emphasis: “and also, and indeed.” This is why it is at home in the pairs of legal language, where two words together make one notion: iubet atque cōnstituit, “commands and establishes,” that is, “enacts” (Section F).
5. Agreement. Two singular subjects joined by atque normally take a plural verb: iūdex atque arbiter adsunt (37.2); emptor atque venditor cōnsentiunt (37.5).
6. Atque meaning “as.” After words of likeness or equality (īdem, pār, aequē, similis, item) atque introduces the thing compared: eadem iūra habet atque dēfūnctus habuit, “the same rights as the deceased had” (37.12); eandem vim habet atque lēx, “the same force as a statute” (37.19).
7. Atque meaning “than.” After words of difference (alius, aliter, secus, contrā) atque means “than”: alia est atque prior, “other than the earlier one” (37.10); aliter atque lēgēs iubent, “otherwise than the laws command” (37.14); aliud atque lēx, “something other than statute” (37.25). Do not read it as “and.”
8. Simul atque, “as soon as.” The phrase introduces a temporal clause. Of a past event it takes the perfect indicative: simul atque iūdex cōnsēdit (37.9). Of a future event Latin uses the future perfect, where English uses a present: simul atque lēgem obscūram invēnerō, “as soon as I find an obscure law” (37.23). In 37.11 the perfect accēpit states a general rule: “as soon as he has received.”
9. Atque adeō and atque etiam. Atque adeō, “and indeed, and what is more,” raises the second statement above the first: atque adeō iūris fontēs sunt (37.22). Atque etiam, “and also,” works in the same way.
10. Repeated atque. Atque … atque joins a series and gives each member weight: in sacrīs atque in sacerdōtibus atque in magistrātibus (37.29).
11. Other points. In 37.8 dēfēnsus est is the perfect passive of dēfendō. In 37.9 cōnsēdit is the perfect of cōnsīdō, “sit down, take one’s seat,” the word for a court beginning to sit. In 37.10 prior is the comparative adjective, “earlier, former,” agreeing with stipulātiō understood. In 37.11 rem trādere is the technical phrase for delivery (trāditiō). In 37.12 dēfūnctus is the perfect participle of the deponent dēfungor, used as a noun, “the deceased.” In 37.13 scrīptum and signātum are neuter, agreeing with testāmentum, and ā with the ablative marks the agent. In 37.15 iūris prūdentia, “knowledge of law,” is the phrase from which “jurisprudence” comes; iūstī and iniūstī are neuter adjectives used as nouns, “the just, the unjust.”
The forms used in this lesson: atque joining words (37.1–37.3, 37.5, 37.7, 37.8, 37.13, 37.15), joining verbs and clauses (37.4, 37.6), as “as” after īdem (37.12), as “than” after alius and aliter (37.10, 37.14), in simul atque (37.9, 37.11); in the Genre Section also atque adeō (37.22), atque … atque (37.29), and atque “as” and “than” in dialogue (37.18, 37.19, 37.25).
Common Mistakes
Writing ac before a vowel: ✗ iūs ac aequitās. Before a vowel or h only atque is possible: iūs atque aequitās.
Reading atque as “and” after alius or īdem: ✗ “this stipulation is other, and the earlier one.” After alius, aliter it means “than”; after īdem it means “as.”
Confusing atque with at, “but,” or atquī, “and yet.” Atque always joins; it never opposes.
Using the present after simul atque for a future event: ✗ simul atque lēgem inveniō, faciam. Latin is exact about time: simul atque invēnerō, “as soon as I shall have found.”
Pronouncing the final e as silent or long: ✗ “AT-kway,” ✗ “atk.” Say /ˈat.kʷe/, AT-kweh, with a short e.
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Iubet atque constituit: the legal pair
Legal language everywhere likes pairs of near-synonyms that together make one complete notion. English law has “null and void,” “fit and proper,” “give, devise and bequeath.” Roman legal Latin had the same habit, and atque was one of its usual links. Gaius uses the pair iubet atque constituit three times in two sentences to define the statute, the plebiscite and the decree of the Senate (Section F). The drafter who writes two words where one might do is trying to leave no gap between them.
Iuris prudentia: Ulpian’s definition
Ulpian’s definition of legal learning, iuris prudentia est divinarum atque humanarum rerum notitia, iusti atque iniusti scientia (37.15), comes from the first book of his Rules and stands near the opening of Justinian’s Digest (1.1.10.2), directly after his definition of justice, iustitia est constans et perpetua voluntas ius suum cuique tribuendi. Justinian’s Institutes repeat it in their first title (1.1.1). The words iuris prudentia gave English “jurisprudence.” The divine things are not decoration: Ulpian also says that public law consists in sacred rites, priests and magistrates (Digest 1.1.1.2), the source of 37.29.
The sources of law
Gaius, writing in the second century AD, opens his Institutes with a list of the sources of Roman law: statutes, plebiscites, decrees of the Senate, imperial constitutions, the edicts of magistrates and the opinions of jurists. A plebiscite was voted by the plebs alone, and Gaius records that the patricians once held that they were not bound by it, until the lex Hortensia, traditionally dated 287 BC, laid down that plebiscites bind the whole people. A decree of the Senate, he says, holds the place of a statute (legis vicem optinet). The Genre Section turns this passage into a lesson between teacher and pupil.
Simul atque and the moment of delivery
Many legal questions turn on the moment at which one thing follows another: when risk passes, when an obligation falls due. Simul atque, “as soon as,” is the Latin for that moment. Example 37.11 is a pedagogical sentence, not a rule quoted from a source: in Roman sale the buyer’s payment and the seller’s delivery were connected obligations, and the details varied with the agreement of the parties.
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The following passage is from the opening of the Institutes of Gaius (1.3–4), the only classical Roman law textbook to survive almost complete. Gaius is listing the sources of Roman law, and he defines three of them, the statute, the plebiscite and the decree of the Senate, with the same formula: quod … iubet atque cōnstituit, “what … commands and establishes.” The text is printed as in the Latin Library edition. Between the second and third definitions Gaius explains the difference between the people and the plebs and the effect of the lex Hortensia; those sentences are left out. The words de ea re stand in square brackets there, because they are supplied by editors.
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Lēx a-statute est is quod what populus the-people iubet commands atque and cōnstituit establishes
F.1b Lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG populus /ˈpo.pu.lus/ people.NOM.M.SG iubet /ˈju.bet/ order.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/ establish.3SG.PRES
F.2a Plēbiscītum a-plebiscite est is quod what plēbs the-plebs iubet commands atque and cōnstituit establishes
F.2b Plēbiscītum /pleː.bisˈkiː.tum/ plebiscite.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG plēbs /pleːps/ plebs.NOM.F.SG iubet /ˈju.bet/ order.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/ establish.3SG.PRES
F.3a Senātūs of-the-Senate cōnsultum a-decree est is quod what senātus the-Senate iubet commands atque and cōnstituit establishes
F.3b Senātūs /seˈnaː.tuːs/ senate.GEN.M.SG cōnsultum /koːnˈsul.tum/ decree.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG senātus /seˈnaː.tus/ senate.NOM.M.SG iubet /ˈju.bet/ order.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/ establish.3SG.PRES
F.4a idque and-it lēgis of-a-statute vicem the-place optinet holds quamvīs although dē about eā this rē matter fuerit it-has-been quaesītum questioned
F.4b idque /ˈid.kʷe/ it.NOM.N.SG+and lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG vicem /ˈwi.kem/ place.ACC.F.SG optinet /ˈop.ti.net/ hold.3SG.PRES quamvīs /ˈkʷam.wiːs/ although.CONJ dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL eā /ˈe.aː/ this.ABL.F.SG rē /reː/ matter.ABL.F.SG fuerit /ˈfu.e.rit/ be.3SG.PERF.SUBJ quaesītum /kʷae̯ˈsiː.tum/ ask.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Lex est, quod populus iubet atque constituit. Plebiscitum est, quod plebs iubet atque constituit. … Senatus consultum est, quod senatus iubet atque constituit; idque legis vicem optinet, quamvis [de ea re] fuerit quaesitum.
→ “A statute is what the people commands and establishes. A plebiscite is what the plebs commands and establishes. … A decree of the Senate is what the Senate commands and establishes; and it holds the place of a statute, although this has been questioned.”
— Gaius, Institutes I, 3–4 (2nd century AD)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Lex est, quod populus iubet atque constituit. Plebiscitum est, quod plebs iubet atque constituit. … Senatus consultum est, quod senatus iubet atque constituit; idque legis vicem optinet, quamvis [de ea re] fuerit quaesitum.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. Each definition has the same shape: a noun, est, and a relative clause introduced by quod, the neuter of quī, which is the object of both verbs: “that which the people commands and establishes.” Quod is neuter although lēx is feminine, because it means “that which,” not “the statute which.” The two verbs are joined by atque and share the one object. In F.3, senātūs is genitive: senātūs cōnsultum, “a decree of the Senate,” is often written as one word, senātūscōnsultum. In F.4, idque is id with -que, “and it.” Lēgis vicem optinet, “holds the place of a statute,” uses vicem, the accusative of a noun that has no nominative in use; the phrase vicem obtinēre, “to take the place of,” is common in the jurists. Optinet is an ancient spelling of obtinet, kept by the edition: the b was pronounced p before t, and some ancient texts write what was heard. Quamvīs, “although,” takes the subjunctive: fuerit quaesītum is a perfect subjunctive passive used impersonally, “it has been questioned.”
Commentary. The three definitions are almost identical, and that is the point. By repeating iubet atque cōnstituit, Gaius makes the three sources look alike: whatever the body that enacts, the act is the same. The pair of verbs is itself a definition of legislation: to command (iubēre, the people’s vote on a proposal) and to establish as lasting law (cōnstituere). The doubt Gaius mentions about decrees of the Senate reflects their history: under the Republic the Senate advised the magistrates, and only in the Principate did its decrees come to be treated as having the force of statute. The spelling in F-B and F-C is that of the edition, without macrons.
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The protocol assigns dialogue to particles and conjunctions. A law student asks his teacher where law comes from, and the teacher answers from Gaius and Ulpian. The dialogue is a pedagogical composition, not a quotation, but it rests on the texts verified for this lesson: 37.17 quotes Gaius, Institutes 1.3; 37.20 follows the same passage on the lex Hortensia; 37.27 reports Ulpian, Digest 1.1.10.2; and 37.29 follows Ulpian, Digest 1.1.1.2, where the original has the perfect cōnstitit.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
37.16a Discipulus the-pupil Magister master quid what est is lēx a-statute atque and unde from-where venit does-it-come
37.16b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.VOC.M.SG quid /kʷid/ what.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ unde /ˈun.de/ whence.ADV venit /ˈwe.nit/ come.3SG.PRES
37.17a Magister the-teacher Gāius Gaius respondet answers lēx a-statute est is quod what populus the-people iubet commands atque and cōnstituit establishes
37.17b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Gāius /ˈɡaː.i.us/ Gaius.NOM.M.SG respondet /reˈspon.det/ answer.3SG.PRES lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES quod /kʷod/ which.ACC.N.SG populus /ˈpo.pu.lus/ people.NOM.M.SG iubet /ˈju.bet/ order.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ cōnstituit /koːnˈsti.tu.it/ establish.3SG.PRES
37.18a Discipulus the-pupil Et and plēbiscītum a-plebiscite Idemne the-same est is-it atque as lēx a-statute
37.18b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Et /et/ and.CONJ plēbiscītum /pleː.bisˈkiː.tum/ plebiscite.NOM.N.SG Idemne /iˈdem.ne/ same.NOM.N.SG+Q est /est/ be.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG
37.19a Magister the-teacher Nōn not idem the-same sed but eandem the-same vim force habet it-has atque as lēx a-statute
37.19b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Nōn /noːn/ not.ADV idem /ˈi.dem/ same.NOM.N.SG sed /sed/ but.CONJ eandem /eˈan.dem/ same.ACC.F.SG vim /wim/ force.ACC.F.SG habet /ˈha.bet/ have.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG
37.20a Posteā afterwards lēx the-law Hortēnsia Hortensian lāta carried est was atque and ex from eō that tempore time plēbiscīta plebiscites ūniversum the-whole populum people tenent bind
37.20b Posteā /ˈpos.te.aː/ afterwards.ADV lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG Hortēnsia /horˈteːn.si.a/ Hortensian.NOM.F.SG lāta /ˈlaː.ta/ carry.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL eō /ˈe.oː/ that.ABL.N.SG tempore /ˈtem.po.re/ time.ABL.N.SG plēbiscīta /pleː.bisˈkiː.ta/ plebiscite.NOM.N.PL ūniversum /uː.niˈwer.sum/ whole.ACC.M.SG populum /ˈpo.pu.lum/ people.ACC.M.SG tenent /ˈte.nent/ hold.3PL.PRES
37.21a Discipulus the-pupil Quid what dē about senātūs of-the-Senate cōnsultīs the-decrees atque and cōnstitūtiōnibus the-constitutions prīncipum of-the-emperors
37.21b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Quid /kʷid/ what.NOM.N.SG dē /deː/ about.PREP+ABL senātūs /seˈnaː.tuːs/ senate.GEN.M.SG cōnsultīs /koːnˈsul.tiːs/ decree.ABL.N.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ cōnstitūtiōnibus /koːn.sti.tuː.tiˈoː.ni.bus/ constitution.ABL.F.PL prīncipum /ˈpriːn.ki.pum/ emperor.GEN.M.PL
37.22a Magister the-teacher Haec these quoque too lēgis of-a-statute vicem the-place obtinent hold atque and adeō indeed iūris of-law fontēs sources sunt they-are
37.22b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Haec /hae̯k/ this.NOM.N.PL quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG vicem /ˈwi.kem/ place.ACC.F.SG obtinent /ˈop.ti.nent/ hold.3PL.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ adeō /ˈa.de.oː/ indeed.ADV iūris /ˈjuː.ris/ law.GEN.N.SG fontēs /ˈfon.teːs/ source.NOM.M.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES
37.23a Discipulus the-pupil Quid what autem but faciam am-I-to-do simul at-the-same-time atque as lēgem a-law obscūram obscure invēnerō I-shall-have-found
37.23b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Quid /kʷid/ what.ACC.N.SG autem /ˈau̯.tem/ but.CONJ faciam /ˈfa.ki.am/ do.1SG.PRES.SUBJ simul /ˈsi.mul/ at-the-same-time.ADV atque /ˈat.kʷe/ as.CONJ lēgem /ˈleː.ɡem/ law.ACC.F.SG obscūram /obsˈkuː.ram/ obscure.ACC.F.SG invēnerō /inˈweː.ne.roː/ find.1SG.FUTPERF
37.24a Magister the-teacher Verba the-words atque and sententiam the-meaning lēgis of-the-law cōnsīderā consider
37.24b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ meaning.ACC.F.SG lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG cōnsīderā /koːnˈsiː.de.raː/ consider.2SG.PRES.IMPER
37.25a Discipulus the-pupil Iūs law igitur then aliud something-other est is atque than lēx statute
37.25b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Iūs /juːs/ law.NOM.N.SG igitur /ˈi.ɡi.tur/ therefore.ADV aliud /ˈa.li.ud/ other.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ than.CONJ lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG
37.26a Magister the-teacher Ita so Iūs law lātius more-widely patet extends atque and lēgēs the-statutes complectitur embraces
37.26b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Ita /ˈi.ta/ so.ADV Iūs /juːs/ law.NOM.N.SG lātius /ˈlaː.ti.us/ widely.ADV.COMP patet /ˈpa.tet/ extend.3SG.PRES atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.ACC.F.PL complectitur /komˈplek.ti.tur/ embrace.3SG.PRES.DEP
37.27a Magister the-teacher Ulpiānus Ulpian dīcit says iūris of-law prūdentiam the-knowledge esse to-be dīvīnārum of-divine atque and hūmānārum human rērum things nōtitiam the-acquaintance
37.27b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Ulpiānus /ul.piˈaː.nus/ Ulpian.NOM.M.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES iūris /ˈjuː.ris/ law.GEN.N.SG prūdentiam /pruːˈden.ti.am/ knowledge.ACC.F.SG esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF dīvīnārum /diː.wiːˈnaː.rum/ divine.GEN.F.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ hūmānārum /huː.maːˈnaː.rum/ human.GEN.F.PL rērum /ˈreː.rum/ thing.GEN.F.PL nōtitiam /noːˈti.ti.am/ acquaintance.ACC.F.SG
37.28a Discipulus the-pupil Dīvīnārum of-divine-things quoque too Id that mihi to-me mīrum strange atque and novum new vidētur seems
37.28b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Dīvīnārum /diː.wiːˈnaː.rum/ divine.GEN.F.PL quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ also.ADV Id /id/ that.NOM.N.SG mihi /ˈmi.hi/ I.DAT.SG mīrum /ˈmiː.rum/ strange.NOM.N.SG atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ novum /ˈno.wum/ new.NOM.N.SG vidētur /wiˈdeː.tur/ see.3SG.PRES.PASS
37.29a Magister the-teacher Pūblicum public enim for iūs law in in sacrīs sacred-rites atque and in in sacerdōtibus priests atque and in in magistrātibus magistrates cōnsistit consists
37.29b Magister /maˈɡis.ter/ teacher.NOM.M.SG Pūblicum /ˈpuː.bli.kum/ public.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ iūs /juːs/ law.NOM.N.SG in /in/ in.PREP+ABL sacrīs /ˈsa.kriːs/ sacred-rite.ABL.N.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL sacerdōtibus /sa.kerˈdoː.ti.bus/ priest.ABL.M.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ in /in/ in.PREP+ABL magistrātibus /ma.ɡisˈtraː.ti.bus/ magistrate.ABL.M.PL cōnsistit /koːnˈsis.tit/ consist.3SG.PRES
37.30a Discipulus the-pupil Intellegō I-understand Crās tomorrow lēgēs the-statutes atque and senātūs of-the-Senate cōnsulta the-decrees iterum again legam I-shall-read
37.30b Discipulus /disˈki.pu.lus/ pupil.NOM.M.SG Intellegō /inˈtel.le.ɡoː/ understand.1SG.PRES Crās /kraːs/ tomorrow.ADV lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.ACC.F.PL atque /ˈat.kʷe/ and.CONJ senātūs /seˈnaː.tuːs/ senate.GEN.M.SG cōnsulta /koːnˈsul.ta/ decree.ACC.N.PL iterum /ˈi.te.rum/ again.ADV legam /ˈle.ɡam/ read.1SG.FUT
Part B: Natural Sentences
37.16 Discipulus: “Magister, quid est lēx, atque unde venit?” → “Pupil: ‘Master, what is a statute, and where does it come from?’”
37.17 Magister: “Gāius respondet: lēx est quod populus iubet atque cōnstituit.” → “Teacher: ‘Gaius answers: a statute is what the people commands and establishes.’”
37.18 Discipulus: “Et plēbiscītum? Idemne est atque lēx?” → “Pupil: ‘And a plebiscite? Is it the same as a statute?’”
37.19 Magister: “Nōn idem, sed eandem vim habet atque lēx.” → “Teacher: ‘Not the same, but it has the same force as a statute.’”
37.20 Magister: “Posteā lēx Hortēnsia lāta est, atque ex eō tempore plēbiscīta ūniversum populum tenent.” → “Teacher: ‘Later the Hortensian law was carried, and from that time plebiscites bind the whole people.’”
37.21 Discipulus: “Quid dē senātūs cōnsultīs atque cōnstitūtiōnibus prīncipum?” → “Pupil: ‘What about the decrees of the Senate and the constitutions of the emperors?’”
37.22 Magister: “Haec quoque lēgis vicem obtinent, atque adeō iūris fontēs sunt.” → “Teacher: ‘These too hold the place of a statute, and indeed they are sources of law.’”
37.23 Discipulus: “Quid autem faciam, simul atque lēgem obscūram invēnerō?” → “Pupil: ‘But what am I to do as soon as I come upon an obscure law?’”
37.24 Magister: “Verba atque sententiam lēgis cōnsīderā.” → “Teacher: ‘Consider the words and the meaning of the law.’”
37.25 Discipulus: “Iūs igitur aliud est atque lēx?” → “Pupil: ‘So law is something other than statute?’”
37.26 Magister: “Ita. Iūs lātius patet atque lēgēs complectitur.” → “Teacher: ‘Yes. Law reaches further and embraces the statutes.’”
37.27 Magister: “Ulpiānus dīcit iūris prūdentiam esse dīvīnārum atque hūmānārum rērum nōtitiam.” → “Teacher: ‘Ulpian says that legal learning is the knowledge of things divine and human.’”
37.28 Discipulus: “Dīvīnārum quoque? Id mihi mīrum atque novum vidētur.” → “Pupil: ‘Divine things too? That seems strange and new to me.’”
37.29 Magister: “Pūblicum enim iūs in sacrīs atque in sacerdōtibus atque in magistrātibus cōnsistit.” → “Teacher: ‘For public law consists in sacred rites, and in priests, and in magistrates.’”
37.30 Discipulus: “Intellegō. Crās lēgēs atque senātūs cōnsulta iterum legam.” → “Pupil: ‘I understand. Tomorrow I shall read the statutes and the decrees of the Senate again.’”
Part C: Latin Text Only
37.16 Discipulus: “Magister, quid est lēx, atque unde venit?”
37.17 Magister: “Gāius respondet: lēx est quod populus iubet atque cōnstituit.”
37.18 Discipulus: “Et plēbiscītum? Idemne est atque lēx?”
37.19 Magister: “Nōn idem, sed eandem vim habet atque lēx.”
37.20 Magister: “Posteā lēx Hortēnsia lāta est, atque ex eō tempore plēbiscīta ūniversum populum tenent.”
37.21 Discipulus: “Quid dē senātūs cōnsultīs atque cōnstitūtiōnibus prīncipum?”
37.22 Magister: “Haec quoque lēgis vicem obtinent, atque adeō iūris fontēs sunt.”
37.23 Discipulus: “Quid autem faciam, simul atque lēgem obscūram invēnerō?”
37.24 Magister: “Verba atque sententiam lēgis cōnsīderā.”
37.25 Discipulus: “Iūs igitur aliud est atque lēx?”
37.26 Magister: “Ita. Iūs lātius patet atque lēgēs complectitur.”
37.27 Magister: “Ulpiānus dīcit iūris prūdentiam esse dīvīnārum atque hūmānārum rērum nōtitiam.”
37.28 Discipulus: “Dīvīnārum quoque? Id mihi mīrum atque novum vidētur.”
37.29 Magister: “Pūblicum enim iūs in sacrīs atque in sacerdōtibus atque in magistrātibus cōnsistit.”
37.30 Discipulus: “Intellegō. Crās lēgēs atque senātūs cōnsulta iterum legam.”
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The dialogue runs atque through its uses. Joining nouns: lēgēs atque senātūs cōnsulta (37.30), cōnsultīs atque cōnstitūtiōnibus (37.21), verba atque sententiam (37.24). Joining adjectives: mīrum atque novum (37.28). Joining verbs: iubet atque cōnstituit (37.17); lātius patet atque lēgēs complectitur (37.26). Joining clauses: quid est lēx, atque unde venit? (37.16); lāta est, atque ex eō tempore … tenent (37.20). “As” after īdem: idemne est atque lēx? and eandem vim … atque lēx (37.18, 37.19). “Than” after alius: aliud atque lēx (37.25). Simul atque with the future perfect: simul atque … invēnerō (37.23). Atque adeō, “and indeed” (37.22). Atque … atque in a series (37.29).
Questions. Idemne (37.18) is idem with the enclitic -ne, which turns a statement into a question without suggesting the answer. Quid dē … ? (37.21), “what about … ?”, needs no verb. Quid faciam? (37.23) is a deliberative subjunctive: “what am I to do?”
Indirect statement. In 37.27 dīcit takes an accusative and infinitive: iūris prūdentiam esse … nōtitiam, “that legal learning is … knowledge.” Compare the direct form in 37.15, where the same words stand in the nominative.
Other points. Lēx Hortēnsia lāta est (37.20): legem ferre, perfect passive lāta est, is the technical phrase for carrying a statute, as in Lesson 36. Tenent (37.20), literally “hold,” is the jurists’ word for “bind”: Gaius writes ut plebiscita universum populum tenerent. Haec (37.22) is neuter plural because it sums up two things of different genders, cōnsulta and cōnstitūtiōnēs. Obtinent (37.22) is written in the usual classical spelling; Gaius’s text in Section F has optinet. Sententia (37.24) is the meaning or intention of a law as against its letter (verba), a pair that runs through Roman legal argument. Complectitur (37.26) is a deponent verb, passive in form, active in meaning. Lātius (37.26) is the comparative adverb of lātē, “widely.” In 37.29 the original of Ulpian has the perfect cōnstitit; the dialogue uses the present cōnsistit, “consists.”
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Atque is /ˈat.kʷe/, two short syllables with the stress on the first. The qu is one consonant, /kʷ/, as in quod /kʷod/, quoque /ˈkʷo.kʷe/ and quaesītum /kʷae̯ˈsiː.tum/. Neither syllable of atque is long by nature, so it carries no macron.
In verse, and often in reading aloud, the final e of atque is elided before a following vowel: atqu(e) aequitās. In careful prose reading each word may be pronounced in full.
Ac, the short form, is written only before consonants. Before a vowel or h, atque alone is correct.
The b of obtinent is pronounced /p/ before t: /ˈop.ti.nent/. Gaius’s text spells the word as it was heard, optinet (Section F).
The plēbs is pronounced /pleːps/, with the b unvoiced before s; plēbiscītum keeps the long ē of plēbs and the long ī of scītum, the participle of scīscō, “enact.”
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D, F-A and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all classical citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal maxims and phrases in running English text (iuris prudentia, lex Hortensia, legis vicem optinet) are likewise printed without macrons.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁷ ◊atque ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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