← Latin for Lawyers, Judges and Notaries Public
◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁸ ◊ᵃᶜ
Welcome to Lesson 38 of our Latin course for legal professionals. Today’s word is the conjunction ac, “and, and also.” The Dickinson Core Vocabulary ranks it 36th among all Latin words, directly after atque, the subject of Lesson 37. Ac is the short form of atque, and it does the same work. Lawyers meet it in one of the best-known sentences of the Digest, the jurist Celsus’s warning against reading statutes by the letter: scire leges non hoc est verba earum tenere, sed vim ac potestatem, “to know the laws is not to hold on to their words, but to their force and power.”
What does ac mean in legal Latin?
Ac joins two words, phrases or clauses that belong closely together: vīs ac potestās, “force and power”; audīvit ac sententiam dīxit, “he heard the case and gave judgment.” Like atque, it has a second set of meanings after particular words. After words of likeness (aequē, perinde, īdem) it means “as”: aequē ac lēx, “just as statute does.” After words of difference (aliter, alius, contrā) it means “than” or “to what”: aliter ac prōmīserat, “otherwise than he had promised.” Simul ac means “as soon as,” and perinde ac sī means “just as if.”
How does Latin differ from English here?
English has one “and.” Latin has et, -que, atque and ac. Ac is atque made shorter, and the choice between the two is mostly a matter of sound: Lewis and Short say that atque is used before vowels and consonants, ac, in classical Latin, only before consonants. So a Latin writer may say lēgēs atque mōrēs or lēgēs ac mōrēs, but only iūs atque aequitās, never iūs ac aequitās. English also uses different words for “as” and “than”; Latin can use ac for both, and the word before it tells you which is meant.
Etymology: ac comes from atque by the loss of its final syllable before a consonant, as nec comes from neque. Lewis and Short compare the two pairs directly. Do not confuse ac with at, “but”: ac always joins and never opposes.
Key Takeaways
⚖ Ac is the short form of atque; it is a conjunction and never changes its form
⚖ It stands only before a consonant: vīs ac potestās; before a vowel or h write atque
⚖ After aequē, perinde, īdem it means “as”: aequē ac lēx, “just as statute does”
⚖ After aliter, alius, contrā it means “than” or “to what”: contrā ac lēx iubet, “contrary to what the law commands”
⚖ Simul ac, “as soon as”; perinde ac sī, “just as if”
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ac /ak/: one short syllable. Say it like English “ack,” with a short a as in “father” said quickly. The c is always hard, /k/.
perinde ac sī /peˈrin.de ak siː/: stress on rin; the three words run together in speech.
potestātem /po.tesˈtaː.tem/: stress on the long tā.
pūpillus /puːˈpil.lus/: the double l is held, as in Italian; stress on pil.
petītor /peˈtiː.tor/: stress on the long tī.
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38.1a Vīs force ac and potestās power
38.1b Vīs /wiːs/ force.NOM.F.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ potestās /poˈtes.taːs/ power.NOM.F.SG
38.2a Lēgēs the-laws ac and mōrēs the-customs valent are-in-force
38.2b Lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.NOM.F.PL ac /ak/ and.CONJ mōrēs /ˈmoː.reːs/ custom.NOM.M.PL valent /ˈwa.lent/ be-strong.3PL.PRES
38.3a Tūtor the-guardian ac and pūpillus the-ward adsunt are-present
38.3b Tūtor /ˈtuː.tor/ guardian.NOM.M.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ pūpillus /puːˈpil.lus/ ward.NOM.M.SG adsunt /ˈad.sunt/ be-present.3PL.PRES
38.4a Reus the-defendant vēnit came ac and tacuit was-silent
38.4b Reus /ˈre.us/ defendant.NOM.M.SG vēnit /ˈweː.nit/ come.3SG.PERF ac /ak/ and.CONJ tacuit /ˈta.ku.it/ be-silent.3SG.PERF
38.5a Patrōnus the-patron ac and lībertus the-freedman cōnsentiunt agree
38.5b Patrōnus /paˈtroː.nus/ patron.NOM.M.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ lībertus /liːˈber.tus/ freedman.NOM.M.SG cōnsentiunt /koːnˈsen.ti.unt/ agree.3PL.PRES
38.6a Iūdex the-judge causam the-case audīvit heard ac and sententiam judgment dīxit pronounced
38.6b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG causam /ˈkau̯.sam/ case.ACC.F.SG audīvit /au̯ˈdiː.wit/ hear.3SG.PERF ac /ak/ and.CONJ sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ judgment.ACC.F.SG dīxit /ˈdiːk.sit/ say.3SG.PERF
38.7a Tabelliō the-notary instrūmentum the-document signāvit sealed ac and partibus to-the-parties trādidit handed-over
38.7b Tabelliō /taˈbel.li.oː/ notary.NOM.M.SG instrūmentum /in.struːˈmen.tum/ document.ACC.N.SG signāvit /siŋˈnaː.wit/ seal.3SG.PERF ac /ak/ and.CONJ partibus /ˈpar.ti.bus/ party.DAT.F.PL trādidit /ˈtraː.di.dit/ hand-over.3SG.PERF
38.8a Cōnsuētūdō custom aequē equally ac as lēx statute cīvēs the-citizens tenet binds
38.8b Cōnsuētūdō /koːn.su̯eːˈtuː.doː/ custom.NOM.F.SG aequē /ˈae̯.kʷeː/ equally.ADV ac /ak/ as.CONJ lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG cīvēs /ˈkiː.weːs/ citizen.ACC.M.PL tenet /ˈte.net/ hold.3SG.PRES
38.9a Simul at-the-same-time ac as pecūnia the-money solūta paid est has-been obligātiō the-obligation tollitur is-extinguished
38.9b Simul /ˈsi.mul/ at-the-same-time.ADV ac /ak/ as.CONJ pecūnia /peˈkuː.ni.a/ money.NOM.F.SG solūta /soˈluː.ta/ pay.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES obligātiō /ob.liˈɡaː.ti.oː/ obligation.NOM.F.SG tollitur /ˈtol.li.tur/ remove.3SG.PRES.PASS
38.10a Venditor the-seller aliter otherwise fēcit acted ac than prōmīserat he-had-promised
38.10b Venditor /ˈwen.di.tor/ seller.NOM.M.SG aliter /ˈa.li.ter/ otherwise.ADV fēcit /ˈfeː.kit/ do.3SG.PERF ac /ak/ than.CONJ prōmīserat /proːˈmiː.se.rat/ promise.3SG.PLUPERF
38.11a Adoptātus the-adopted-son perinde just in in potestāte the-power patris of-the-father est is ac as sī if ex from eō him nātus born sit he-had-been
38.11b Adoptātus /a.dopˈtaː.tus/ adopt.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.M.SG perinde /peˈrin.de/ just.ADV in /in/ in.PREP+ABL potestāte /po.tesˈtaː.te/ power.ABL.F.SG patris /ˈpa.tris/ father.GEN.M.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES ac /ak/ as.CONJ sī /siː/ if.CONJ ex /eks/ from.PREP+ABL eō /ˈe.oː/ he.ABL.M.SG nātus /ˈnaː.tus/ be-born.PERF.PART.NOM.M.SG sit /sit/ be.3SG.PRES.SUBJ
38.12a Iūdex the-judge reum the-defendant aequē equally dīligenter carefully audīre to-hear dēbet ought ac as petītōrem the-claimant
38.12b Iūdex /ˈjuː.deks/ judge.NOM.M.SG reum /ˈre.um/ defendant.ACC.M.SG aequē /ˈae̯.kʷeː/ equally.ADV dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV audīre /au̯ˈdiː.re/ hear.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES ac /ak/ as.CONJ petītōrem /pe.tiːˈtoː.rem/ claimant.ACC.M.SG
38.13a Testāmentum the-will contrā contrary ac to-what lēx the-law iubet commands sine without testibus witnesses factum made est was
38.13b Testāmentum /tes.taːˈmen.tum/ will.NOM.N.SG contrā /ˈkon.traː/ contrary.ADV ac /ak/ to-what.CONJ lēx /leːks/ law.NOM.F.SG iubet /ˈju.bet/ order.3SG.PRES sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL testibus /ˈtes.ti.bus/ witness.ABL.M.PL factum /ˈfak.tum/ make.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES
38.14a Tūtor the-guardian rēs the-affairs pūpillī of-the-ward eādem with-the-same dīligentiā care administrāre to-manage dēbet ought ac as suās his-own
38.14b Tūtor /ˈtuː.tor/ guardian.NOM.M.SG rēs /reːs/ affair.ACC.F.PL pūpillī /puːˈpil.liː/ ward.GEN.M.SG eādem /eˈaː.dem/ same.ABL.F.SG dīligentiā /diː.liˈɡen.ti.aː/ care.ABL.F.SG administrāre /ad.mi.nisˈtraː.re/ manage.PRES.INF dēbet /ˈdeː.bet/ ought.3SG.PRES ac /ak/ as.CONJ suās /ˈsu.aːs/ his-own.ACC.F.PL
38.15a Scīre to-know lēgēs the-laws nōn not hoc this est is verba the-words eārum of-them tenēre to-hold sed but vim the-force ac and potestātem the-power
38.15b Scīre /ˈskiː.re/ know.PRES.INF lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.ACC.F.PL nōn /noːn/ not.ADV hoc /hok/ this.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL eārum /eˈaː.rum/ they.GEN.F.PL tenēre /teˈneː.re/ hold.PRES.INF sed /sed/ but.CONJ vim /wim/ force.ACC.F.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ potestātem /po.tesˈtaː.tem/ power.ACC.F.SG
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38.1 Vīs ac potestās. → “Force and power.”
38.2 Lēgēs ac mōrēs valent. → “The laws and the customs are in force.”
38.3 Tūtor ac pūpillus adsunt. → “The guardian and the ward are present.”
38.4 Reus vēnit ac tacuit. → “The defendant came and said nothing.”
38.5 Patrōnus ac lībertus cōnsentiunt. → “The patron and the freedman agree.”
38.6 Iūdex causam audīvit ac sententiam dīxit. → “The judge heard the case and gave judgment.”
38.7 Tabelliō instrūmentum signāvit ac partibus trādidit. → “The notary sealed the document and handed it to the parties.”
38.8 Cōnsuētūdō aequē ac lēx cīvēs tenet. → “Custom binds the citizens just as statute does.”
38.9 Simul ac pecūnia solūta est, obligātiō tollitur. → “As soon as the money has been paid, the obligation is extinguished.”
38.10 Venditor aliter fēcit ac prōmīserat. → “The seller acted otherwise than he had promised.”
38.11 Adoptātus perinde in potestāte patris est ac sī ex eō nātus sit. → “An adopted son is in his father’s power just as if he had been born of him.”
38.12 Iūdex reum aequē dīligenter audīre dēbet ac petītōrem. → “A judge ought to hear the defendant as carefully as the claimant.”
38.13 Testāmentum contrā ac lēx iubet sine testibus factum est. → “The will was made without witnesses, contrary to what the law commands.”
38.14 Tūtor rēs pūpillī eādem dīligentiā administrāre dēbet ac suās. → “A guardian ought to manage the ward’s affairs with the same care as his own.”
38.15 Scīre lēgēs nōn hoc est verba eārum tenēre, sed vim ac potestātem. → “To know the laws is not to hold on to their words, but to their force and power.” (Celsus, Digest 1.3.17)
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38.1 Vīs ac potestās.
38.2 Lēgēs ac mōrēs valent.
38.3 Tūtor ac pūpillus adsunt.
38.4 Reus vēnit ac tacuit.
38.5 Patrōnus ac lībertus cōnsentiunt.
38.6 Iūdex causam audīvit ac sententiam dīxit.
38.7 Tabelliō instrūmentum signāvit ac partibus trādidit.
38.8 Cōnsuētūdō aequē ac lēx cīvēs tenet.
38.9 Simul ac pecūnia solūta est, obligātiō tollitur.
38.10 Venditor aliter fēcit ac prōmīserat.
38.11 Adoptātus perinde in potestāte patris est ac sī ex eō nātus sit.
38.12 Iūdex reum aequē dīligenter audīre dēbet ac petītōrem.
38.13 Testāmentum contrā ac lēx iubet sine testibus factum est.
38.14 Tūtor rēs pūpillī eādem dīligentiā administrāre dēbet ac suās.
38.15 Scīre lēgēs nōn hoc est verba eārum tenēre, sed vim ac potestātem.
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These are the grammar rules for ac in Latin:
1. Form. Ac is a coordinating conjunction. It has no endings and never changes. It is the shortened form of atque, and it stands between the two things it joins.
2. Ac and atque. Ac is written only before a consonant: vīs ac potestās (38.1), lēgēs ac mōrēs (38.2). Before a vowel or h only atque is possible: iūs atque aequitās, never iūs ac aequitās. Before a consonant the writer may use either form; 38.2 is the same sentence as 37.3, with ac in place of atque and no change of meaning. Many writers also seem to have avoided ac before c, g and qu, where two k-sounds would meet; to be safe, every ac in this lesson stands before some other consonant.
3. What ac joins. Like et and atque, ac joins words of the same kind and in the same construction: two nouns in the same case (38.1–38.3, 38.5), two verbs (38.4), two clauses with their own objects (38.6, 38.7), two adverbs (benignē ac prūdenter, 38.25; clārē ac palam, 38.28), or two whole sentences (38.29, 38.30).
4. Agreement. Two singular subjects joined by ac normally take a plural verb: tūtor ac pūpillus adsunt (38.3); patrōnus ac lībertus cōnsentiunt (38.5).
5. Ac meaning “as.” After words of likeness or equality (aequē, perinde, īdem, pār, similis) ac introduces the thing compared: aequē ac lēx, “just as statute does” (38.8); aequē dīligenter … ac petītōrem, “as carefully as the claimant” (38.12, 38.19); eādem dīligentiā … ac suās, “with the same care as his own” (38.14). The verb of the second member is often left out and must be supplied from the first: aequē ac lēx [tenet].
6. Perinde ac sī, “just as if.” This introduces an imagined comparison and takes the subjunctive. The tense follows the main verb: after a present, the present or perfect subjunctive. In 38.11 est is present, so the perfect subjunctive nātus sit stands for a past that did not happen: “just as if he had been born of him.”
7. Ac meaning “than” or “to what.” After words of difference (aliter, alius, secus, contrā) ac introduces the other side of the contrast: aliter fēcit ac prōmīserat, “acted otherwise than he had promised” (38.10); nōlī aliter iūdicāre ac lēgēs iubent (38.20); contrā ac lēx iubet, “contrary to what the law commands” (38.13). Do not read ac as “and” here.
8. Simul ac, “as soon as.” The phrase introduces a temporal clause. For a general rule Latin may use the perfect: simul ac pecūnia solūta est, obligātiō tollitur, “as soon as the money has been paid, the obligation is extinguished” (38.9). For a future event it uses the future perfect, where English uses a present or perfect: simul ac partēs dīxerint, “as soon as the parties have spoken” (38.26).
9. Ac joining sentences. Ac can join two whole sentences, adding the second as a close consequence or continuation: memoriā tenē, ac rēctē iūdicābis, “keep this in mind, and you will judge rightly” (38.30).
10. Other points. In 38.4 tacuit is the perfect of taceō, “be silent.” In 38.6 sententiam dīcere is to pronounce a judgment or opinion. In 38.7 partēs are the parties to a transaction, in the dative after trādidit. In 38.9 obligātiō tollitur, literally “the obligation is removed,” is the jurists’ way of saying that an obligation is discharged; solvere is the verb of payment, and solūtiō of discharge. In 38.11 adoptātus is a perfect participle used as a noun, “the adopted one.” In 38.12 the petītor is the claimant in a civil suit, the reus the defendant. In 38.14 suās agrees with rēs understood: “his own [affairs].” In 38.15 hoc anticipates the infinitive: “to know the laws is not this, to hold their words”; vim ac potestātem are objects of tenēre understood.
The forms used in this lesson: ac joining words (38.1–38.5, 38.15, and 38.17, 38.22, 38.24, 38.25, 38.27, 38.28 in the Genre Section); joining clauses or sentences (38.4, 38.6, 38.7, 38.16, 38.18, 38.21, 38.23, 38.29, 38.30); as “as” after aequē, perinde and īdem (38.8, 38.11, 38.12, 38.14, 38.19); as “than” or “to what” after aliter and contrā (38.10, 38.13, 38.20); in simul ac (38.9, 38.26).
Common Mistakes
Writing ac before a vowel or h: ✗ iūs ac aequitās, ✗ ac hērēs. Use atque: iūs atque aequitās, atque hērēs.
Reading ac as “and” after aequē or aliter: ✗ “custom binds equally, and statute.” After aequē it means “as”; after aliter it means “than.”
Using the indicative after perinde ac sī: ✗ perinde ac sī nātus est. The comparison is imagined, so the subjunctive is required: ac sī nātus sit.
Confusing ac with at, “but.” Ac always joins; it never opposes.
Pronouncing the c soft: ✗ “ass,” ✗ “atch.” Latin c is always /k/: say /ak/.
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Vim ac potestatem: Celsus on interpretation
Publius Iuventius Celsus, one of the leading jurists of the early second century AD, gave the Digest three short sentences on how to read a statute, placed one after another in the title on laws (Digest 1.3.17–19). The first is the sentence of 38.15: scire leges non hoc est verba earum tenere, sed vim ac potestatem. The second says that statutes are to be interpreted generously, so that their intention is preserved (benignius leges interpretandae sunt, quo voluntas earum conservetur, D. 1.3.18). The third says that where the wording of a statute is ambiguous, the meaning free from fault is to be preferred, especially where the intention of the statute can be gathered from it (D. 1.3.19). The three together are the classical Roman case for reading law by its purpose as well as its letter, and the Genre Section turns them into instructions to a new judge.
Verba and vis: letter and spirit
The opposition of verba, the words, and vis, the force or meaning, runs through Roman legal argument, as Lesson 37 showed with verba atque sententia. Modern lawyers know it as the contrast of letter and spirit, or of literal and purposive interpretation. Celsus does not say that the words do not matter; he says that holding the words is not yet knowing the law.
Ac in legal pairs
Like atque, ac links the pairs of near-synonyms that legal language loves: vis ac potestas, “force and power,” two words for the one notion of legal effect. English drafting has the same habit in “force and effect” and “power and authority.” Where the second word begins with a consonant, Latin writers chose freely between ac and atque, often by ear.
Simul ac, perinde ac si: timing and fiction
Simul ac, “as soon as,” marks the moment at which one legal event follows another, such as payment and discharge (38.9). Perinde ac si, “just as if,” is the Latin of legal fiction: the law treats a person or thing as if it were something it is not. Example 38.11 is a pedagogical sentence, not a quotation: in Roman law a son adopted into a family came under his adoptive father’s power, and the Institutes of Gaius and of Justinian treat adoption as one of the ways a person comes into potestas. Examples 38.9, 38.13 and 38.14 are likewise pedagogical sentences built on verified patterns, not rules quoted from a source.
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The following passage is from Cicero’s speech for Aulus Cluentius (Pro Cluentio 146), delivered in 66 BC. Cicero argues that a state held together by laws must not depart from its laws, and he describes the law as the mind of the state: without it, the state cannot use its own parts, “its sinews and blood and limbs.” The passage ends with one of the most quoted sentences in Latin on the rule of law. The text is printed as in the Perseus edition, with capitals normalised (Perseus prints Vt for Ut, and begins the first sentence with a small letter, because it follows a longer sentence that is left out here).
F-A: Interlinear Construed Text
F.1a Hoc this enim for vinculum the-bond est is huius of-this dignitātis standing quā which fruimur we-enjoy in in rē the-commonwealth pūblicā public hoc this fundāmentum the-foundation lībertātis of-liberty hic this fōns the-spring aequitātis of-equity
F.1b Hoc /hok/ this.NOM.N.SG enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ vinculum /ˈwiŋ.ku.lum/ bond.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES huius /ˈhuj.jus/ this.GEN.F.SG dignitātis /diŋ.niˈtaː.tis/ standing.GEN.F.SG quā /kʷaː/ which.ABL.F.SG fruimur /ˈfru.i.mur/ enjoy.1PL.PRES.DEP in /in/ in.PREP+ABL rē /reː/ thing.ABL.F.SG pūblicā /ˈpuː.bli.kaː/ public.ABL.F.SG hoc /hok/ this.NOM.N.SG fundāmentum /fun.daːˈmen.tum/ foundation.NOM.N.SG lībertātis /liː.berˈtaː.tis/ liberty.GEN.F.SG hic /hik/ this.NOM.M.SG fōns /foːns/ spring.NOM.M.SG aequitātis /ae̯.kʷiˈtaː.tis/ equity.GEN.F.SG
F.2a Mēns the-mind et and animus the-spirit et and cōnsilium the-counsel et and sententia the-judgment cīvitātis of-the-state posita placed est is in in lēgibus the-laws
F.2b Mēns /meːns/ mind.NOM.F.SG et /et/ and.CONJ animus /ˈa.ni.mus/ spirit.NOM.M.SG et /et/ and.CONJ cōnsilium /koːnˈsi.li.um/ counsel.NOM.N.SG et /et/ and.CONJ sententia /senˈten.ti.a/ judgment.NOM.F.SG cīvitātis /kiː.wiˈtaː.tis/ state.GEN.F.SG posita /ˈpo.si.ta/ place.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.F.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES in /in/ in.PREP+ABL lēgibus /ˈleː.ɡi.bus/ law.ABL.F.PL
F.3a Ut as corpora bodies nostra our sine without mente the-mind sīc so cīvitās the-state sine without lēge law suīs its-own partibus parts ut such-as nervīs sinews ac and sanguine blood et and membrīs limbs ūtī to-use nōn not potest is-able
F.3b Ut /ut/ as.CONJ corpora /ˈkor.po.ra/ body.NOM.N.PL nostra /ˈnos.tra/ our.NOM.N.PL sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL mente /ˈmen.te/ mind.ABL.F.SG sīc /siːk/ so.ADV cīvitās /ˈkiː.wi.taːs/ state.NOM.F.SG sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL lēge /ˈleː.ɡe/ law.ABL.F.SG suīs /ˈsu.iːs/ its-own.ABL.F.PL partibus /ˈpar.ti.bus/ part.ABL.F.PL ut /ut/ as.CONJ nervīs /ˈner.wiːs/ sinew.ABL.M.PL ac /ak/ and.CONJ sanguine /ˈsaŋ.ɡu̯i.ne/ blood.ABL.M.SG et /et/ and.CONJ membrīs /ˈmem.briːs/ limb.ABL.N.PL ūtī /ˈuː.tiː/ use.PRES.INF.DEP nōn /noːn/ not.ADV potest /ˈpo.test/ be-able.3SG.PRES
F.4a Lēgum of-the-laws ministrī the-servants magistrātūs the-magistrates lēgum of-the-laws interpretēs the-interpreters iūdicēs the-judges lēgum of-the-laws dēnique finally idcircō for-this-reason omnēs all servī slaves sumus we-are ut so-that līberī free esse to-be possīmus we-may-be-able
F.4b Lēgum /ˈleː.ɡum/ law.GEN.F.PL ministrī /miˈnis.triː/ servant.NOM.M.PL magistrātūs /ma.ɡisˈtraː.tuːs/ magistrate.NOM.M.PL lēgum /ˈleː.ɡum/ law.GEN.F.PL interpretēs /inˈter.pre.teːs/ interpreter.NOM.M.PL iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.NOM.M.PL lēgum /ˈleː.ɡum/ law.GEN.F.PL dēnique /ˈdeː.ni.kʷe/ finally.ADV idcircō /idˈkir.koː/ therefore.ADV omnēs /ˈom.neːs/ all.NOM.M.PL servī /ˈser.wiː/ slave.NOM.M.PL sumus /ˈsu.mus/ be.1PL.PRES ut /ut/ so-that.CONJ līberī /ˈliː.be.riː/ free.NOM.M.PL esse /ˈes.se/ be.PRES.INF possīmus /posˈsiː.mus/ be-able.1PL.PRES.SUBJ
F-B: Natural Text with Translation
Hoc enim vinculum est huius dignitatis qua fruimur in re publica, hoc fundamentum libertatis, hic fons aequitatis; mens et animus et consilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus. Ut corpora nostra sine mente, sic civitas sine lege suis partibus ut nervis ac sanguine et membris uti non potest. Legum ministri magistratus, legum interpretes iudices, legum denique idcirco omnes servi sumus ut liberi esse possimus.
→ “For this is the bond of the standing we enjoy in the commonwealth, this the foundation of liberty, this the spring of equity: the mind and spirit and counsel and judgment of the state are placed in its laws. As our bodies cannot use their parts without the mind, so the state without law cannot use its own parts, its sinews and blood and limbs. The magistrates are the servants of the laws, the judges the interpreters of the laws; in the end we are all slaves of the laws, so that we may be free.”
— Cicero, Pro Cluentio 146 (66 BC)
F-C: Latin Text Only
Hoc enim vinculum est huius dignitatis qua fruimur in re publica, hoc fundamentum libertatis, hic fons aequitatis; mens et animus et consilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus. Ut corpora nostra sine mente, sic civitas sine lege suis partibus ut nervis ac sanguine et membris uti non potest. Legum ministri magistratus, legum interpretes iudices, legum denique idcirco omnes servi sumus ut liberi esse possimus.
F-D: Grammar and Literary Commentary
Grammar. In F.1 hoc is neuter because it agrees with vinculum and fundāmentum, but the third member changes to hic, masculine, to agree with fōns: each pronoun takes the gender of its own noun. Quā fruimur: fruor, “enjoy,” is a deponent verb that takes the ablative, so the relative is quā, not quam. In F.2 four subjects are joined by et … et … et, and the verb posita est agrees with the nearest, sententia; this is common when the subjects form one idea. In F.3 ut is used twice: first “as” (ut corpora nostra … sīc cīvitās, “as our bodies … so the state”), then “such as,” introducing examples (ut nervīs …). Ūtor, like fruor, is deponent and takes the ablative, which is why suīs partibus, nervīs, sanguine and membrīs are all ablative. The first half of the comparison leaves out its verb: “as our bodies [cannot use their parts] without the mind.” In F.4 the first two clauses have no verb: “the magistrates [are] servants of the laws, the judges [are] interpreters of the laws.” Magistrātūs is nominative plural of the fourth declension. Idcircō … ut, “for this reason … that,” introduces a purpose clause, with the present subjunctive possīmus.
Ac in the passage. Cicero joins nervīs ac sanguine with ac, then adds membrīs with et. The mixture is typical of classical prose, where et, ac and atque are varied for sound and rhythm. Ac stands before s, a consonant, as the rule requires.
Commentary. The passage is a sustained metaphor of the body politic: law is to the state what the mind is to the body, the thing that makes its parts work together. The final sentence moves from the officials to everyone: magistrates serve the laws, judges interpret them, and all citizens are their slaves, a paradox resolved in the last words, ut liberi esse possimus, “so that we may be free.” For the judge, the sentence legum interpretes iudices defines the office, and the Genre Section quotes it. The spelling in F-B and F-C is that of the edition, without macrons.
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The protocol assigns dialogue or instructions to particles and conjunctions; Lesson 37 had a dialogue, so this lesson gives instructions. An experienced judge instructs a newly appointed colleague, step by step, from taking his seat to pronouncing judgment. The instructions are a pedagogical composition, not a quotation, but they rest on the texts verified for this lesson: 38.24 and 38.25 follow Celsus, Digest 1.3.17 and 1.3.18; 38.29 reports Cicero, Pro Cluentio 146 (Section F). 38.27 varies Tacitus’s sine ira et studio (Annals 1.1) with ac in place of et.
Part A: Interlinear Construed Text
38.16a Prīmum first tribūnal the-tribunal ascende mount ac and sedē sit
38.16b Prīmum /ˈpriː.mum/ first.ADV tribūnal /triˈbuː.nal/ tribunal.ACC.N.SG ascende /asˈken.de/ climb.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ and.CONJ sedē /ˈse.deː/ sit.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.17a Deinde then petītōrem the-claimant ac and reum the-defendant vocā call
38.17b Deinde /ˈdei̯n.de/ then.ADV petītōrem /pe.tiːˈtoː.rem/ claimant.ACC.M.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ reum /ˈre.um/ defendant.ACC.M.SG vocā /ˈwo.kaː/ call.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.18a Petītōrem the-claimant prīmum first audī hear ac and verba the-words eius of-him notā note
38.18b Petītōrem /pe.tiːˈtoː.rem/ claimant.ACC.M.SG prīmum /ˈpriː.mum/ first.ADV audī /ˈau̯.diː/ hear.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ and.CONJ verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL eius /ˈej.jus/ he.GEN.M.SG notā /ˈno.taː/ note.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.19a Tum then reum the-defendant aequē equally patienter patiently audī hear ac as petītōrem the-claimant
38.19b Tum /tum/ then.ADV reum /ˈre.um/ defendant.ACC.M.SG aequē /ˈae̯.kʷeː/ equally.ADV patienter /pa.tiˈen.ter/ patiently.ADV audī /ˈau̯.diː/ hear.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ as.CONJ petītōrem /pe.tiːˈtoː.rem/ claimant.ACC.M.SG
38.20a Nōlī do-not aliter otherwise iūdicāre judge ac than lēgēs the-laws iubent command
38.20b Nōlī /ˈnoː.liː/ be-unwilling.2SG.PRES.IMPER aliter /ˈa.li.ter/ otherwise.ADV iūdicāre /juː.diˈkaː.re/ judge.PRES.INF ac /ak/ than.CONJ lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.NOM.F.PL iubent /ˈju.bent/ order.3PL.PRES
38.21a Testēs the-witnesses singulōs one-by-one interrogā question ac and respōnsa the-answers eōrum of-them cōnfer compare
38.21b Testēs /ˈtes.teːs/ witness.ACC.M.PL singulōs /ˈsiŋ.ɡu.loːs/ one-by-one.ACC.M.PL interrogā /inˈter.ro.ɡaː/ question.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ and.CONJ respōnsa /reˈspoːn.sa/ answer.ACC.N.PL eōrum /eˈoː.rum/ they.GEN.M.PL cōnfer /ˈkoːn.fer/ compare.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.22a Tabulās the-tablets ac and signa the-seals dīligenter carefully īnspice examine
38.22b Tabulās /ˈta.bu.laːs/ tablet.ACC.F.PL ac /ak/ and.CONJ signa /ˈsiŋ.na/ seal.ACC.N.PL dīligenter /diː.liˈɡen.ter/ carefully.ADV īnspice /ˈiːn.spi.ke/ examine.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.23a Sī if signum a-seal ruptum broken est is id it statim at-once notā note ac and testibus to-the-witnesses ostende show
38.23b Sī /siː/ if.CONJ signum /ˈsiŋ.num/ seal.NOM.N.SG ruptum /ˈrup.tum/ break.PERF.PART.PASS.NOM.N.SG est /est/ be.3SG.PRES id /id/ it.ACC.N.SG statim /ˈsta.tim/ at-once.ADV notā /ˈno.taː/ note.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ and.CONJ testibus /ˈtes.ti.bus/ witness.DAT.M.PL ostende /osˈten.de/ show.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.24a Nōlī do-not verba the-words sōla alone spectāre look-at sed but vim the-force ac and potestātem the-power lēgis of-the-law spectā look-at
38.24b Nōlī /ˈnoː.liː/ be-unwilling.2SG.PRES.IMPER verba /ˈwer.ba/ word.ACC.N.PL sōla /ˈsoː.la/ alone.ACC.N.PL spectāre /spekˈtaː.re/ look-at.PRES.INF sed /sed/ but.CONJ vim /wim/ force.ACC.F.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ potestātem /po.tesˈtaː.tem/ power.ACC.F.SG lēgis /ˈleː.ɡis/ law.GEN.F.SG spectā /ˈspek.taː/ look-at.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.25a Lēgēs the-laws benignē generously ac and prūdenter wisely interpretāre interpret
38.25b Lēgēs /ˈleː.ɡeːs/ law.ACC.F.PL benignē /beˈniŋ.neː/ generously.ADV ac /ak/ and.CONJ prūdenter /pruːˈden.ter/ wisely.ADV interpretāre /in.ter.preˈtaː.re/ interpret.2SG.PRES.IMPER.DEP
38.26a Simul at-the-same-time ac as partēs the-parties dīxerint shall-have-spoken tōtam the-whole rem matter tēcum with-yourself perpende weigh
38.26b Simul /ˈsi.mul/ at-the-same-time.ADV ac /ak/ as.CONJ partēs /ˈpar.teːs/ party.NOM.F.PL dīxerint /ˈdiːk.se.rint/ speak.3PL.FUTPERF tōtam /ˈtoː.tam/ whole.ACC.F.SG rem /rem/ matter.ACC.F.SG tēcum /ˈteː.kum/ you.ABL.SG+with perpende /perˈpen.de/ weigh.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.27a Sine without īrā anger ac and studiō partiality sententiam judgment dīc pronounce
38.27b Sine /ˈsi.ne/ without.PREP+ABL īrā /ˈiː.raː/ anger.ABL.F.SG ac /ak/ and.CONJ studiō /ˈstu.di.oː/ partiality.ABL.N.SG sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ judgment.ACC.F.SG dīc /diːk/ say.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.28a Sententiam the-judgment clārē clearly ac and palam openly prōnūntiā pronounce
38.28b Sententiam /senˈten.ti.am/ judgment.ACC.F.SG clārē /ˈklaː.reː/ clearly.ADV ac /ak/ and.CONJ palam /ˈpa.lam/ openly.ADV prōnūntiā /proːˈnuːn.ti.aː/ pronounce.2SG.PRES.IMPER
38.29a Iūdicēs judges enim for ut as Cicerō Cicero dīcit says lēgum of-the-laws interpretēs interpreters sunt are ac and nōs we omnēs all lēgum of-the-laws servī slaves sumus are
38.29b Iūdicēs /ˈjuː.di.keːs/ judge.NOM.M.PL enim /ˈe.nim/ for.CONJ ut /ut/ as.CONJ Cicerō /ˈki.ke.roː/ Cicero.NOM.M.SG dīcit /ˈdiː.kit/ say.3SG.PRES lēgum /ˈleː.ɡum/ law.GEN.F.PL interpretēs /inˈter.pre.teːs/ interpreter.NOM.M.PL sunt /sunt/ be.3PL.PRES ac /ak/ and.CONJ nōs /noːs/ we.NOM.PL omnēs /ˈom.neːs/ all.NOM.M.PL lēgum /ˈleː.ɡum/ law.GEN.F.PL servī /ˈser.wiː/ slave.NOM.M.PL sumus /ˈsu.mus/ be.1PL.PRES
38.30a Haec these praecepta instructions memoriā in-memory tenē keep ac and rēctē rightly iūdicābis you-will-judge
38.30b Haec /hae̯k/ this.ACC.N.PL praecepta /prae̯ˈkep.ta/ instruction.ACC.N.PL memoriā /meˈmo.ri.aː/ memory.ABL.F.SG tenē /ˈte.neː/ hold.2SG.PRES.IMPER ac /ak/ and.CONJ rēctē /ˈreːk.teː/ rightly.ADV iūdicābis /juː.diˈkaː.bis/ judge.2SG.FUT
Part B: Natural Sentences
38.16 Prīmum tribūnal ascende ac sedē. → “First mount the tribunal and take your seat.”
38.17 Deinde petītōrem ac reum vocā. → “Then call the claimant and the defendant.”
38.18 Petītōrem prīmum audī ac verba eius notā. → “Hear the claimant first and take note of his words.”
38.19 Tum reum aequē patienter audī ac petītōrem. → “Then hear the defendant as patiently as the claimant.”
38.20 Nōlī aliter iūdicāre ac lēgēs iubent. → “Do not judge otherwise than the laws command.”
38.21 Testēs singulōs interrogā ac respōnsa eōrum cōnfer. → “Question the witnesses one by one and compare their answers.”
38.22 Tabulās ac signa dīligenter īnspice. → “Examine the tablets and the seals carefully.”
38.23 Sī signum ruptum est, id statim notā ac testibus ostende. → “If a seal is broken, note it at once and show it to the witnesses.”
38.24 Nōlī verba sōla spectāre, sed vim ac potestātem lēgis spectā. → “Do not look at the words alone, but look at the force and power of the law.”
38.25 Lēgēs benignē ac prūdenter interpretāre. → “Interpret the laws generously and wisely.”
38.26 Simul ac partēs dīxerint, tōtam rem tēcum perpende. → “As soon as the parties have spoken, weigh the whole matter in your own mind.”
38.27 Sine īrā ac studiō sententiam dīc. → “Give your judgment without anger and partiality.”
38.28 Sententiam clārē ac palam prōnūntiā. → “Pronounce the judgment clearly and openly.”
38.29 Iūdicēs enim, ut Cicerō dīcit, lēgum interpretēs sunt, ac nōs omnēs lēgum servī sumus. → “For judges, as Cicero says, are the interpreters of the laws, and we are all slaves of the laws.”
38.30 Haec praecepta memoriā tenē, ac rēctē iūdicābis. → “Keep these instructions in mind, and you will judge rightly.”
Part C: Latin Text Only
38.16 Prīmum tribūnal ascende ac sedē.
38.17 Deinde petītōrem ac reum vocā.
38.18 Petītōrem prīmum audī ac verba eius notā.
38.19 Tum reum aequē patienter audī ac petītōrem.
38.20 Nōlī aliter iūdicāre ac lēgēs iubent.
38.21 Testēs singulōs interrogā ac respōnsa eōrum cōnfer.
38.22 Tabulās ac signa dīligenter īnspice.
38.23 Sī signum ruptum est, id statim notā ac testibus ostende.
38.24 Nōlī verba sōla spectāre, sed vim ac potestātem lēgis spectā.
38.25 Lēgēs benignē ac prūdenter interpretāre.
38.26 Simul ac partēs dīxerint, tōtam rem tēcum perpende.
38.27 Sine īrā ac studiō sententiam dīc.
38.28 Sententiam clārē ac palam prōnūntiā.
38.29 Iūdicēs enim, ut Cicerō dīcit, lēgum interpretēs sunt, ac nōs omnēs lēgum servī sumus.
38.30 Haec praecepta memoriā tenē, ac rēctē iūdicābis.
Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section
The instructions run ac through its uses. Joining nouns: petītōrem ac reum (38.17), tabulās ac signa (38.22), vim ac potestātem (38.24), īrā ac studiō (38.27). Joining adverbs: benignē ac prūdenter (38.25), clārē ac palam (38.28). Joining commands: ascende ac sedē (38.16), audī ac … notā (38.18), interrogā ac … cōnfer (38.21), notā ac … ostende (38.23). Joining sentences: … sunt, ac nōs omnēs … sumus (38.29); tenē, ac rēctē iūdicābis (38.30). “As” after aequē: aequē patienter … ac petītōrem (38.19). “Than” after aliter: aliter … ac lēgēs iubent (38.20). Simul ac with the future perfect: simul ac partēs dīxerint (38.26).
Commands. Instructions are given in the imperative: ascende, sedē, vocā, audī, notā, interrogā, cōnfer, īnspice, ostende, spectā, perpende, dīc, prōnūntiā, tenē. Dīc (38.27) is one of four short imperatives with no final e, with dūc, fac and fer; cōnfer (38.21) is a compound of fer. Interpretāre (38.25) is the imperative of the deponent interpretor, passive in form and active in meaning. A prohibition is made with nōlī and the infinitive, “be unwilling to …”: nōlī aliter iūdicāre (38.20), nōlī verba sōla spectāre (38.24).
Imperative and future. In 38.30 an imperative followed by ac and a future makes a promise: “keep these in mind, and you will judge rightly.” English uses the same pattern.
Other points. Tribūnal (38.16) is the raised platform on which a Roman magistrate sat to hear cases. Signum (38.22, 38.23) is a seal; tabulae are the wax tablets of a document, which were tied and sealed by witnesses, so a broken seal was a sign that a document might have been opened. Studium (38.27) here is partiality or zeal for one side. Tēcum (38.26) is tē with cum attached after it, as in mēcum, nōbīscum. In 38.29 Cicero’s words (legum interpretes iudices) are reported in a clause of their own, with the verb sunt supplied. In 38.27 Tacitus wrote sine ira et studio, of his own writing of history, not of judging; the instructions apply his phrase to the judge and use ac in place of et.
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Ac is /ak/, one syllable, with a short vowel. Lewis and Short print the headword with a long mark (āc), but the vowel is short by nature, and modern dictionaries write ac without a macron; the syllable counts as heavy in verse because it ends in a consonant. This lesson writes ac without a macron.
Because ac is written only before consonants, it is never elided in verse, unlike atque: atqu(e) aequitās, but ac lēgēs, with no change.
The c of ac is always hard: /ak/ before any letter, as in ac sanguine /ak ˈsaŋ.ɡu̯i.ne/ and ac potestātem /ak po.tesˈtaː.tem/.
The gn of signum and benignē is pronounced /ŋn/, as in the IPA of this lesson: /ˈsiŋ.num/, /beˈniŋ.neː/. This lesson writes signum, signa, signāvit without a macron on the i, as Lesson 37 did.
Notā (38.18, 38.23) is the imperative of notō, “note, mark,” with a short o; do not confuse it with nōtus, “known,” which has a long ō.
Macrons: this lesson marks every long vowel in Sections A–D, F-A and the Genre Section. F-B and F-C, like all classical citations, are printed without macrons, as they appear in editions. Legal maxims and phrases in running English text (vim ac potestatem, legum interpretes iudices, sine ira et studio) are likewise printed without macrons.
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◊ᴺᵉˣᵃˡ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿᵘᵐ ◊ᴸᵃᵗⁱⁿ ◊ᴸᵉˢˢᵒⁿ³⁸ ◊ᵃᶜ ◊ᶜᵒᵐᵖˡᵉᵗᵉ
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