The particle in is arguably the single most important functional word in Classical Nahuatl, appearing with extraordinary frequency throughout the Florentine Codex and other colonial texts. As the second most common word in the language (after subject prefixes), in performs multiple critical syntactic functions. While it is often translated as “the” (like a definite article), this translation is misleading and oversimplified.
Primary Function: The particle in marks arguments of predicates. When you see a verb or nominal predicate in Nahuatl, in signals which noun phrases are participating in the action or state being described. Think of it as an “argument marker” rather than merely “the.”
This lesson focuses on the Florentine Codex Book 1 (Tēteoh, “The Gods”), where in appears in descriptions of deities, their attributes, and their relationships. The text demonstrates how in works in both simple and complex syntactic patterns, from basic VSO word order to more elaborate topicalization structures.
Why is this important? Understanding in unlocks the syntactic architecture of Nahuatl. Without grasping its function, students cannot properly parse sentences or understand information structure. The particle reveals which elements are topics, which are focused, and how clauses relate to one another.
Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
FAQ: What is this text about?
Q: What does the particle “in” actually do? A: In marks noun phrases as arguments of a predicate (subject, object). It also creates relative clauses, introduces complements, and marks topics.
Q: Is “in” a definite article like English “the”? A: No. While in often appears before definite/specific nouns, it appears before proper names (already definite) and possessed nouns (already definite). It’s an argument marker, not an article.
Q: How is “in” different from “ca” (Lesson 002)? A: Ca is a declarative particle that adds assertive force and appears before predicates. In marks arguments and appears after predicates or at the beginning of clauses for topicalization.
-
In is the most frequent particle in Classical Nahuatl, marking arguments of predicates -
Primary function: syntactic argument marker (not just “definite article”) -
Secondary functions: relativizer, complementizer, subordinator -
Appears in both VSO and VOS word order patterns -
Combines with ca to create topic-comment structures -
Essential for understanding Nahuatl sentence structure and information flow
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
1.1a Mihtōtia dances-3SG in [ARG] tēuctli lord [VSO]
1.1b Mihtōtia (mee-toh-TEE-ah) dances-3SG in (een) [ARG] tēuctli (tay-OOK-tlee) lord
1.2a Cuīca sings-3SG in [ARG] cihuātl woman [VSO]
1.2b Cuīca (kwee-KAH) sings-3SG in (een) [ARG] cihuātl (see-WAH-tl) woman
1.3a Ca indeed teōtl god in [ARG] Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli [TOPIC]
1.3b Ca (kah) indeed teōtl (tay-OH-tl) god in (een) [ARG] Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POCH-tlee) Huitzilopochtli
1.4a Ōmic died-3SG in [ARG] tlamatini wise-one [VSO]
1.4b Ōmic (OH-meek) died-3SG in (een) [ARG] tlamatini (tlah-mah-TEE-nee) wise-one
1.5a Ca indeed huēyi big in [ARG] teōcalli temple [TOPIC]
1.5b Ca (kah) indeed huēyi (WAY-yee) big in (een) [ARG] teōcalli (tay-oh-KAL-lee) temple
2.1a Ōquicōuh bought-it-3SG in [ARG] tlācatl man in [ARG] tlaxcalli tortilla [VSO]
2.1b Ōquicōuh (oh-kee-KOH-oo) bought-it-3SG in (een) [ARG] tlācatl (TLAH-kahtl) man in (een) [ARG] tlaxcalli (tlahsh-KAL-lee) tortilla
2.2a Ōquicōuh bought-it-3SG in [ARG] tlaxcalli tortilla in [ARG] tlācatl man [VOS]
2.2b Ōquicōuh (oh-kee-KOH-oo) bought-it-3SG in (een) [ARG] tlaxcalli (tlahsh-KAL-lee) tortilla in (een) [ARG] tlācatl (TLAH-kahtl) man
2.3a Quittah see-it-3PL in [ARG] tēteoh gods in [ARG] tōnatiuh sun [VSO]
2.3b Quittah (kee-TTAH) see-it-3PL in (een) [ARG] tēteoh (tay-tay-OH) gods in (een) [ARG] tōnatiuh (toh-nah-TEE-oo) sun
2.4a Ca indeed in [TOP] Tezcatlipoca Tezcatlipoca teōtl god [TOPICALIZED]
2.4b Ca (kah) indeed in (een) [TOP] Tezcatlipoca (tess-kaht-lee-POH-kah) Tezcatlipoca teōtl (tay-OH-tl) god
2.5a Mochīhua happens-3SG in [ARG] nemi liztli life ipan on in [ARG] tlālticpac earth [VSO]
2.5b Mochīhua (moh-CHEE-wah) happens-3SG in (een) [ARG] nemi liztli (nay-mee-LEESS-tlee) life ipan (EE-pahn) on in (een) [ARG] tlālticpac (tlahl-TEEK-pahk) earth
3.1a In [REL] cuīca sings-3SG ca indeed tlamatini wise-one [HEADLESS RELATIVE]
3.1b In (een) [REL] cuīca (kwee-KAH) sings-3SG ca (kah) indeed tlamatini (tlah-mah-TEE-nee) wise-one
3.2a In [REL] mihtōtiah dance-3PL ca indeed in [ARG] tēteoh gods [HEADLESS RELATIVE]
3.2b In (een) [REL] mihtōtiah (mee-toh-TEE-ah) dance-3PL ca (kah) indeed in (een) [ARG] tēteoh (tay-tay-OH) gods
3.3a In [TOP] tlācatl man in [REL] ōquicōuh bought-it-3SG in [ARG] tlaxcalli tortilla ōmic died-3SG [HEADED RELATIVE]
3.3b In (een) [TOP] tlācatl (TLAH-kahtl) man in (een) [REL] ōquicōuh (oh-kee-KOH-oo) bought-it-3SG in (een) [ARG] tlaxcalli (tlahsh-KAL-lee) tortilla ōmic (OH-meek) died-3SG
3.4a Ca indeed in [TOP] Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli teōtl god in [REL] tlamatini wise-one [COMPLEX TOPIC]
3.4b Ca (kah) indeed in (een) [TOP] Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POCH-tlee) Huitzilopochtli teōtl (tay-OH-tl) god in (een) [REL] tlamatini (tlah-mah-TEE-nee) wise-one
3.5a Niquimati I-know-it in [COMP] ca indeed teōtl god in [ARG] Quetzalcōātl Quetzalcoatl [COMPLEMENTIZER]
3.5b Niquimati (nee-kee-MAH-tee) I-know-it in (een) [COMP] ca (kah) indeed teōtl (tay-OH-tl) god in (een) [ARG] Quetzalcōātl (ket-sahl-KOH-ahtl) Quetzalcoatl
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
1.1 Mihtōtia in tēuctli. “The lord dances.”
1.2 Cuīca in cihuātl. “The woman sings.”
1.3 Ca teōtl in Huitzilopochtli. “Indeed Huitzilopochtli is a god.”
1.4 Ōmic in tlamatini. “The wise one died.”
1.5 Ca huēyi in teōcalli. “Indeed the temple is big.”
2.1 Ōquicōuh in tlācatl in tlaxcalli. “The man bought the tortilla.”
2.2 Ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli in tlācatl. “The man bought the tortilla.” (VOS word order)
2.3 Quittah in tēteoh in tōnatiuh. “The gods see the sun.”
2.4 Ca in Tezcatlipoca teōtl. “Indeed Tezcatlipoca is a god.”
2.5 Mochīhua in nemi liztli ipan in tlālticpac. “Life happens on the earth.”
3.1 In cuīca ca tlamatini. “The one who sings is indeed a wise one.”
3.2 In mihtōtiah ca in tēteoh. “Those who dance are indeed the gods.”
3.3 In tlācatl in ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli ōmic. “The man who bought the tortilla died.”
3.4 Ca in Huitzilopochtli teōtl in tlamatini. “Indeed Huitzilopochtli is a god, a wise one.”
3.5 Niquimati in ca teōtl in Quetzalcōātl. “I know that Quetzalcoatl is a god.”
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
1.1 Mihtōtia in tēuctli.
1.2 Cuīca in cihuātl.
1.3 Ca teōtl in Huitzilopochtli.
1.4 Ōmic in tlamatini.
1.5 Ca huēyi in teōcalli.
2.1 Ōquicōuh in tlācatl in tlaxcalli.
2.2 Ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli in tlācatl.
2.3 Quittah in tēteoh in tōnatiuh.
2.4 Ca in Tezcatlipoca teōtl.
2.5 Mochīhua in nemi liztli ipan in tlālticpac.
3.1 In cuīca ca tlamatini.
3.2 In mihtōtiah ca in tēteoh.
3.3 In tlācatl in ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli ōmic.
3.4 Ca in Huitzilopochtli teōtl in tlamatini.
3.5 Niquimati in ca teōtl in Quetzalcōātl.
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
These are the grammar rules for the particle “in” in Classical Nahuatl:
The particle in marks noun phrases as arguments (participants) of predicates. In the basic word order patterns:
VSO (Verb-Subject-Object): The most common pattern -
Predicate + in + Subject + in + Object -
Example: Ōquicōuh in tlācatl in tlaxcalli “The man bought the tortilla” -
Both subject and object are marked with in
VOS (Verb-Object-Subject): Alternative pattern for indefinite or less topical objects -
Predicate + in + Object + in + Subject -
Example: Ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli in tlācatl “The man bought the tortilla” -
Same meaning, different information structure
VS (Verb-Subject): For intransitive verbs -
Predicate + in + Subject -
Example: Mihtōtia in tēuctli “The lord dances”
Many grammars translate in as “the” (definite article), but this is misleading. Evidence: -
In appears before proper names (already maximally definite): -
in Huitzilopochtli “Huitzilopochtli” (not “the Huitzilopochtli”) -
in Motēuczōmah “Moctezuma” -
In appears before possessed nouns (already definite via possession): -
in ītōcā “his name” (not “the his name”) -
in īteōuh “his god” -
In appears in non-specific contexts: -
nicchīhuaz in tleh in ticnequiz “I shall do whatever you want” -
Here tleh means “whatever/something” - not definite!
Better understanding: In marks syntactic role (argument status) rather than definiteness. It tells you “this noun phrase is participating in the action/state.” The definiteness/specificity reading is a pragmatic effect, not the core meaning.
In creates relative clauses - clauses that modify nouns or function as nouns themselves.
Headless Relatives (no explicit noun being modified): -
in + Verb → “the one who [verb]” / “those who [verb]” -
in cuīca “the one who sings” → “the singer” -
in mihtōtiah “those who dance” → “the dancers” -
in tlamatini “the wise one” → “the sage”
Headed Relatives (modifying an explicit noun): -
Noun + in + Relative Clause -
in tlācatl in ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli “the man who bought the tortilla” -
HEAD: in tlācatl “the man” -
RELATIVE: in ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli “who bought the tortilla”
When in + NP appears at the beginning of a clause, it marks the topic - what the sentence is about. Often followed by ca: -
in + NP, [ca] + Comment -
Ca in Huitzilopochtli teōtl “Indeed Huitzilopochtli is a god” -
TOPIC: in Huitzilopochtli (what we’re talking about) -
COMMENT: teōtl (what we’re saying about it)
Ca and in work together in complementary distribution: -
Ca: Declarative force, appears before predicates -
In: Marks arguments, appears after predicates
Combined pattern: ca + in + NP + Predicate -
Ca in Tezcatlipoca teōtl “Indeed Tezcatlipoca is a god” -
Ca adds assertive force (”indeed”) -
In marks topic/subject -
Teōtl is the predicate
After verbs of knowing, seeing, saying, in can introduce complement clauses (like English “that”): -
Niquimati in ca teōtl “I know that (it) is a god” -
Niqui tta in tiquichihua “I see that you make it”
This function will be explored more in future lessons.
Classical Nahuatl exhibits flexible word order, with in helping to identify argument roles:
Basic patterns: -
VSO: Verb + in Subject + in Object (most common) -
VOS: Verb + in Object + in Subject (object less topical) -
VS: Verb + in Subject (intransitive)
Marked patterns: 4. In NP + Predicate (topicalization) 5. In + Verb (headless relative, nominalization)
Mistake 1: Treating in as obligatory definite article -
WRONG: Always translate in as “the” -
RIGHT: Understand in as argument marker; definiteness is contextual
Mistake 2: Omitting in in translations -
Many English translations omit “the” for proper names -
But Nahuatl consistently uses in for syntactic marking
Mistake 3: Confusing in with ca -
Ca = declarative particle (before predicates) -
In = argument marker (after predicates, or fronted for topics)
Mistake 4: Not recognizing headless relatives -
in cuīca is NOT “in the sings” → it’s “the one who sings” -
In + verb creates a nominal expression
-
Find the predicate (verb or nominal predicate) - usually first -
Identify arguments marked with “in” - they come after the predicate -
Determine word order: First in + NP = usually subject (VSO), sometimes object (VOS) -
Check for topicalization: In + NP at start = topic -
Check for relativization: In + Verb without predicate = relative clause
Example: Ca in Huitzilopochtli teōtl in tlamatini -
Predicate: teōtl “god” (nominal predicate) -
Ca adds declarative force -
First in + NP: in Huitzilopochtli = TOPIC/SUBJECT -
Second in + Noun: in tlamatini = ADDITIONAL PREDICATE or APPOSITIVE -
Translation: “Indeed Huitzilopochtli is a god, a wise one”
Particle “in” - Multifunctional Operator: -
Primary: Argument marker (marks NP as participant in predicate) -
Secondary: Relativizer (creates relative clauses) -
Tertiary: Complementizer (introduces complement clauses) -
Position: After predicate (arguments), before clause (topics/relatives) -
Frequency: Second most common word in Classical Nahuatl -
Function: Primarily syntactic (not semantic like “the”)
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
ācallahco (ah-kahl-LAH-koh) - when dawn breaks; at dawn Temporal expression from ācalli “boat” + directional
ca (kah) - indeed, truly; declarative particle Adds assertive force; from Lesson 002
cān (kahn) - where, somewhere; place interrogative Used with “in” to form “in cān” “where/the place where”
cihuātl (see-WAH-tl) - woman, female Absolutive form: cihuā-tl; plural: cihuāh
cuīca (kwee-KAH) - he/she/it sings; to sing Verb class 1; present tense; 3rd person singular
huēyi (WAY-yee) - big, large, great Adjectival/nominal predicate; can function as noun or adjective
Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POCH-tlee) - Hummingbird-on-the-Left; principal Mexica deity Proper name; war and sun god; from huitzilli “hummingbird” + ōpōchtli “left”
in (een) - [PARTICLE] argument marker, relativizer, complementizer Most frequent particle in Nahuatl; marks arguments, creates relatives, introduces topics
ipan (EE-pahn) - on, upon, at Relational noun from i- “its” + -pan “surface/on”; requires possessive prefix
īc (eek) - thereby, in what way; instrumental Used in “in īc” constructions for manner/means
ītōcā (ee-TOH-kah) - his/her/its name From tōcāitl “name” with 3rd person possessive ī-; requires possessor
īteōuh (ee-tay-OH-oo) - his/her god From teōtl “god” with 3rd person possessive
mihtōtia (mee-toh-TEE-ah) - he/she/it dances; to dance Verb class 2; present tense; 3rd person singular
mihtōtiah (mee-toh-TEE-ah) - they dance Plural form; 3rd person plural with -h suffix
mochīhua (moh-CHEE-wah) - it happens, it is made From chihua “to make” with reflexive mo-; passive/middle voice
Motēuczōmah (moh-tay-ook-SOH-mah) - Moctezuma; “He-Frowns-Like-a-Lord” Proper name; multiple Mexica rulers bore this name
nemi liztli (nay-mee-LEESS-tlee) - life, living, existence From nemi “to live” + abstract suffix -liztli
niquimati (nee-kee-MAH-tee) - I know it ni- (1SG subject) + qui- (3SG object) + mati “know”
ōmic (OH-meek) - he/she/it died From miqui “to die”; preterit with ō- perfective particle
ōquicōuh (oh-kee-KOH-oo) - he/she bought it From cōhua “to buy”; ō- (perfective) + qui- (3OBJ) + cōuh (preterit)
quēnin (KAY-neen) - how, in what manner Manner interrogative; used with “in” in comparisons
Quetzalcōātl (ket-sahl-KOH-ahtl) - Feathered Serpent; major Mesoamerican deity Proper name; from quetzalli “precious feather” + cōātl “serpent”
quittah (kee-TTAH) - they see it From itta “to see”; qui- (3OBJ) + itta + -h (plural); irregular verb
tēteoh (tay-tay-OH) - gods, deities Plural of teōtl with irregular formation; te- reduplication + -h plural
teōcalli (tay-oh-KAL-lee) - temple, god-house Compound: teō-tl “god” + cal-li “house”
teōtl (tay-OH-tl) - god, deity, sacred power Core religious concept; can be nominal predicate without copula
Tezcatlipoca (tess-kaht-lee-POH-kah) - Smoking Mirror; major deity Proper name; from tezcatl “mirror” + poca “to smoke”; creator/trickster god
tlācatl (TLAH-kahtl) - man, person, human Absolutive form; plural: tlācah
tlālticpac (tlahl-TEEK-pahk) - earth, world; on-earth-surface From tlālli “earth” + -tic (relational) + -pac “on”; locative
tlamatini (tlah-mah-TEE-nee) - wise one, sage, knower-of-things From mati “to know” with tla- (indefinite object) + agentive -ni; philosopher/scholar
tlaxcalli (tlahsh-KAL-lee) - tortilla, maize flatbread From tlaxcal-li; core food item; can be incorporated into verbs
tleh (tleh) - what, something, whatever Interrogative/indefinite; used with “in” in free choice constructions
tōnatiuh (toh-nah-TEE-oo) - sun, solar deity From tōna “to be warm/sunny”; 3rd person form functions as noun
tēuctli (tay-OOK-tlee) - lord, ruler, nobleman Absolutive form; honorific term; plural: tēuctin
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
This simplified version uses high-frequency vocabulary and simpler syntactic patterns while maintaining authentic Nahuatl structure:
Basic “in” usage: -
Mihtōtia in tlācatl. “The man dances.” -
Cuīca in cihuātl. “The woman sings.” -
Ōmic in tēuctli. “The lord died.” -
Ca teōtl. “(It) is a god.” -
In cuīca ca tlamatini. “The one who sings is a wise one.”
With objects: -
Ōquicōuh in tlācatl in tlaxcalli. “The man bought the tortilla.” -
Quittah in tēteoh in tōnatiuh. “The gods see the sun.”
Simple relatives: -
In tlācatl in ōmic. “The man who died.” -
In cihuātl in cuīca. “The woman who sings.”
Topicalization: -
Ca in Huitzilopochtli teōtl. “Indeed Huitzilopochtli is a god.”
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
Colonial Nahuatl (16th century orthography preserved):
Ca in Vitzilopuchtli, ca ҫan tlamacazqui, naualloio, tetzauhoio, tlatoio: auh in itech pouja in macevaltica vncan mjtoa, ipan in atl, ipan in tepetl: auh ic vncan mytztlanj in mjlhujloque.
Modern standardized orthography:
Ca in Huitzilopochtli, ca zan tlamacazqui, nahuallōyoh, tetzauhyoh, tlātōyoh: auh in ītech pōhua in mācēhualtica oncān mihtoa, īpan in ātl, īpan in tepētl: auh ic oncān mitztlania in milhuiloq ue.
Morphological analysis: -
Ca in Huitzilopochtli = DECL [ARG] Huitzilopochtli [TOPIC] -
ca zan tlamacazqui = DECL only priest [PREDICATE] -
nahuallōyoh = possessor-of-nahualli “magical/transformed” -
tetzauhyoh = possessor-of-tetzauitl “portentous/frightening” -
tlātōyoh = possessor-of-tlātōlli “articulate/eloquent” -
in ītech pōhua = [ARG] its-by it-is-counted “what pertains to him” -
in mācēhualtica = [ARG] human-wise “in human terms” -
oncān mihtoa = there it-is-said -
īpan in ātl, īpan in tepētl = on [ARG] water, on [ARG] mountain [DIFRASISMO: “community”]
Translation:
“Indeed Huitzilopochtli, he was only a priest, a possessor of nahualli-power, frightening, a great speaker. And what pertains to him in human terms, there it is said: on the water, on the mountain (i.e., in the community). And thereby he asks you, the celebrating ones.”
Notes on usage: -
Ca in combination for topicalization: Ca in Huitzilopochtli marks the topic with declarative force -
Multiple in markings: in ītech pōhua, in mācēhualtica, in ātl, in tepētl - all marking arguments -
Difrasismo: īpan in ātl, īpan in tepētl “on the water, on the mountain” = metaphor for “in the community/city-state” -
Possessed relational: ītech “its-by” = “pertaining to it” -
Literary/religious register: Complex nominal predicates stacked (nahuallōyoh, tetzauhyoh, tlātōyoh)
Modern standardized:
Ca in Tezcatlipoca, zan teōtl. Ca īhuān quilmach mochintin quimatiah, quitēmachiah: auh in ācah quitlācōlīta, ca yeh quihtlācōltilia.
Translation:
“Indeed Tezcatlipoca was only a god. And also, it is said, all knew him, recognized him. And whoever sinned, he indeed caused him to sin.”
Notes: -
Same topic structure: Ca in Tezcatlipoca, zan teōtl “Indeed Tezcatlipoca, (he was) only a god” -
Complementizer use: quilmach “it is said” introducing reported speech -
Object incorporation vs. in marking contrast seen in broader context
✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾ ✾ ❦ ✾ ❦ ✾
The Latinum Institute has been creating comprehensive language learning materials since 2006, specializing in text-based, autodidact approaches to ancient and indigenous languages. This Nahuatl course follows the proven Latinum methodology: systematic exposure to authentic texts with detailed grammatical explanation, progressive vocabulary building, and emphasis on reading comprehension.
Why this approach works for Nahuatl: Classical Nahuatl is an agglutinative language with complex morphology but relatively regular patterns once the system is understood. The particle in exemplifies this: it appears with extraordinary frequency, performs multiple functions, but follows predictable rules based on syntactic context. By working through authentic texts from the Florentine Codex and other colonial sources, students develop both grammatical competence and cultural-historical knowledge simultaneously.
Course Philosophy: Rather than simplified “textbook Nahuatl,” we present the language as it was actually written and spoken in the 16th century. This includes the apparent complexity of particles like in and ca working together, the flexible word order, and the omnipredicative nature of the language (where nouns can function as predicates without a copula). Understanding these features from the start, rather than oversimplifying, leads to deeper comprehension and faster progress.
This lesson series uses a CSV-based vocabulary progression system ensuring systematic coverage of the 1,000 most frequent words in Classical Nahuatl texts. Lesson 003 focuses on in because it is the second most common word in the language - mastering its functions is essential for reading any Nahuatl text.
Reviews: See what students say about Latinum Institute courses: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk
Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Next Steps: Continue with Lesson 004 to explore more particle combinations and word order variations. The particle system of Nahuatl (ca, in, ō, ye, auh, zan, etc.) forms the backbone of syntactic structure - understanding how these elements combine unlocks the language’s architecture.
Lesson 003 Complete | Next: Lesson 004 - Word Order and Information Structure
---