The particle auh is one of the most essential building blocks of Classical Nahuatl discourse. Appearing as the 6th-8th most frequent word in the Florentine Codex, auh serves as the primary connective tissue binding clauses together in narrative, mythological, and ceremonial texts. Its primary meaning is “and then” or “and,” marking sequential events and maintaining discourse cohesion.
Historical Context: This lesson focuses on texts from Book 2 of the Florentine Codex, which documents Aztec ceremonies and festivals. In these ritual narratives, auh appears with remarkable density—approximately 6 instances per 100 words—creating the characteristic flowing, interconnected style of Classical Nahuatl storytelling. The particle was so integral to narrative register that, as one scholar notes, “a new clause is rarely introduced without a connecting word” in Nahuatl narration and myth.
Linguistic Function: Unlike English, where “and” is optional and sentences can stand independently, auh is virtually obligatory in Classical Nahuatl formal narrative. It occupies a special position (Slot 0) before all other pre-predicate particles, always appearing clause-initially. This creates the distinctive “chain structure” of Nahuatl narrative: Event₁. auh Event₂. auh Event₃. auh...
Word Order Significance: Auh helps structure information flow in Nahuatl’s flexible word order system. It signals clause boundaries, marks topic shifts between discourse segments, and guides listeners/readers through complex narratives. While auh primarily indicates temporal sequence (”and then”), it can also mark continuative action (”and”), weak contrast (”but/however”), or the introduction of new narrative participants.
Learning Objectives for This Lesson: -
Understand auh as clause-initial sequential connector -
Recognize auh-chaining patterns in narrative discourse -
Learn combinations with other particles (ca, ō-, in, ye) -
Distinguish narrative register (obligatory auh) from conversational (optional) -
Practice translating dense auh-chains from ceremonial texts
Key Takeaways: -
Auh = “and then, and, now” - the primary narrative connector -
Always clause-initial (SLOT 0 position, before all other particles) -
Obligatory in narrative/mythological register, optional in conversation -
Creates discourse cohesion through sequential chaining -
Marks temporal progression, topic shifts, and narrative flow
For more Nahuatl lessons and language learning resources, visit our course index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
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Instructions: Each entry has two lines: -
Line “a” shows the Nahuatl with English gloss words -
Line “b” provides pronunciation and detailed glossing A blank line separates each numbered item.
1.1a Mihtōtia he-dances. Auh and-then cuīca he-sings.
1.1b Mihtōtia (mee-toh-TEE-ah) he-dances. Auh (ah-oo) and-then cuīca (KWEE-kah) he-sings.
1.2a Ōquicōuh he-bought-it. Auh and-then ōquicuah he-ate-it.
1.2b Ōquicōuh (oh-kee-KOH) he-bought-it. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōquicuah (oh-kee-KWAH) he-ate-it.
1.3a Ōmic he-died in the tēuctli lord. Auh and-then mochīuh it-happened tlaōcoya mourning.
1.3b Ōmic (OH-meek) he-died in (een) the tēuctli (teh-OOK-tlee) lord. Auh (ah-oo) and-then mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened tlaōcoya (tlah-oh-KOH-yah) mourning.
1.4a Quinchichīnah they-prepare-them in the tlamacazqueh priests. Auh and-then quittah he-sees-them in the tēuctli lord.
1.4b Quinchichīnah (keen-chee-CHEE-nah) they-prepare-them in (een) the tlamacazqueh (tlah-mah-KAHS-keh) priests. Auh (ah-oo) and-then quittah (keet-TAH) he-sees-them in (een) the tēuctli (teh-OOK-tlee) lord.
1.5a Ōhuālāqueh they-came-entering. Auh and-then ōquittaqueh they-saw-it in the āltepētl city.
1.5b Ōhuālāqueh (oh-wahl-AH-keh) they-came-entering. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōquittaqueh (oh-keet-TAH-keh) they-saw-it in (een) the āltepētl (ahl-TEH-peh-tl) city.
2.1a Mochīuh it-happened in the tepēhualiztli war. Auh and-then ye now ōmic he-died in the tēuctli lord.
2.1b Mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened in (een) the tepēhualiztli (teh-peh-wah-LEES-tlee) war. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ye (yeh) now ōmic (OH-meek) he-died in (een) the tēuctli (teh-OOK-tlee) lord.
2.2a Quicōhua he-buys-it. Auh and-then quicua he-eats-it. Auh and-then mopachoa he-is-satisfied.
2.2b Quicōhua (kee-KOH-wah) he-buys-it. Auh (ah-oo) and-then quicua (kee-KWAH) he-eats-it. Auh (ah-oo) and-then mopachoa (moh-pah-CHOH-ah) he-is-satisfied.
2.3a Ca indeed teōtl god in the Huitzilopochtli Huitzilopochtli. Auh and in the Quetzalcōātl Quetzalcoatl, nō also ca indeed teōtl god.
2.3b Ca (kah) indeed teōtl (TEH-ohtl) god in (een) the Huitzilopochtli (wee-tsee-loh-POCH-tlee) Huitzilopochtli. Auh (ah-oo) and in (een) the Quetzalcōātl (keht-sahl-KOH-ahtl) Quetzalcoatl, nō (noh) also ca (kah) indeed teōtl (TEH-ohtl) god.
2.4a Mochīuh it-happened in the ilhuītl festival. Auh and-then ca indeed ō already ye now huētzih they-fell.
2.4b Mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened in (een) the ilhuītl (eel-WEE-tl) festival. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already ye (yeh) now huētzih (WEH-tsee) they-fell.
2.5a Nicnequi I-want niyāz I-go. Auh but ahmō not huel truly niciz I-go.
2.5b Nicnequi (neek-NEH-kee) I-want niyāz (nee-YAHS) I-go. Auh (ah-oo) but ahmō (ah-MOH) not huel (wehl) truly niciz (NEE-sees) I-go.
3.1a Ōhuālāqueh they-came-entering. Auh and-then ōquittaqueh they-saw-it in the āltepētl city. Auh and-then ca indeed huēyi great. Auh and-then ōmauhtiaqueh they-were-afraid.
3.1b Ōhuālāqueh (oh-wahl-AH-keh) they-came-entering. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōquittaqueh (oh-keet-TAH-keh) they-saw-it in (een) the āltepētl (ahl-TEH-peh-tl) city. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed huēyi (WEH-yee) great. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōmauhtiaqueh (oh-mah-oo-tee-AH-keh) they-were-afraid.
3.2a Quinchichīnah they-prepare-them in the tlamacazqueh priests. Auh and-then quittah he-sees-them in the tēuctli lord. Auh and-then mihtōtiah they-dance. Auh and-then quicuīcah they-sing-it in the cuīcatl song.
3.2b Quinchichīnah (keen-chee-CHEE-nah) they-prepare-them in (een) the tlamacazqueh (tlah-mah-KAHS-keh) priests. Auh (ah-oo) and-then quittah (keet-TAH) he-sees-them in (een) the tēuctli (teh-OOK-tlee) lord. Auh (ah-oo) and-then mihtōtiah (mee-toh-TEE-ah) they-dance. Auh (ah-oo) and-then quicuīcah (kee-KWEE-kah) they-sing-it in (een) the cuīcatl (KWEE-kahtl) song.
3.3a Auh and-then ca indeed ō already in the Motēuczōmah Moctezuma quittac he-saw-it.
3.3b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already in (een) the Motēuczōmah (moh-teh-ook-SOH-mah) Moctezuma quittac (keet-TAHK) he-saw-it.
3.4a Mochīhuah they-happen in the tlamictiliztli sacrifices. Auh and in the oc still cequintin others tēteoh gods tlachīxqueh they-look-upon-things.
3.4b Mochīhuah (moh-CHEE-wah) they-happen in (een) the tlamictiliztli (tlah-meek-tee-LEES-tlee) sacrifices. Auh (ah-oo) and in (een) the oc (ohk) still cequintin (seh-KEEN-teen) others tēteoh (teh-TEH-oh) gods tlachīxqueh (tlah-CHEESH-keh) they-look-upon-things.
3.5a Auh and-then in when ōquittaqueh they-saw-it in the Caxtiltēcah Spaniards, auh and-then cenca very ōmauhtiaqueh they-were-afraid, auh and-then ahmō not huel truly ōquīzqueh they-left.
3.5b Auh (ah-oo) and-then in (een) when ōquittaqueh (oh-keet-TAH-keh) they-saw-it in (een) the Caxtiltēcah (kahs-teel-TEH-kah) Spaniards, auh (ah-oo) and-then cenca (SEHN-kah) very ōmauhtiaqueh (oh-mah-oo-tee-AH-keh) they-were-afraid, auh (ah-oo) and-then ahmō (ah-MOH) not huel (wehl) truly ōquīzqueh (oh-KEES-keh) they-left.
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Instructions: Complete Nahuatl sentences followed by idiomatic English translations.
1.1 Mihtōtia. Auh cuīca. “He dances. And then he sings.”
1.2 Ōquicōuh. Auh ōquicuah. “He bought it. And then he ate it.”
1.3 Ōmic in tēuctli. Auh mochīuh tlaōcoya. “The lord died. And then there was mourning.”
1.4 Quinchichīnah in tlamacazqueh. Auh quittah in tēuctli. “The priests prepare them. And then the lord sees them.”
1.5 Ōhuālāqueh. Auh ōquittaqueh in āltepētl. “They entered. And then they saw the city.”
2.1 Mochīuh in tepēhualiztli. Auh ye ōmic in tēuctli. “The war happened. And now the lord has died.”
2.2 Quicōhua. Auh quicua. Auh mopachoa. “He buys it. And then he eats it. And then he is satisfied.”
2.3 Ca teōtl in Huitzilopochtli. Auh in Quetzalcōātl, nō ca teōtl. “Huitzilopochtli is a god. And Quetzalcoatl, he too is a god.”
2.4 Mochīuh in ilhuītl. Auh ca ō ye huētzih. “The festival happened. And indeed now they have fallen.”
2.5 Nicnequi niyāz. Auh ahmō huel niciz. “I want to go. But I cannot go.”
3.1 Ōhuālāqueh. Auh ōquittaqueh in āltepētl. Auh ca huēyi. Auh ōmauhtiaqueh. “They entered. And then they saw the city. And indeed it was great. And then they were afraid.”
3.2 Quinchichīnah in tlamacazqueh. Auh quittah in tēuctli. Auh mihtōtiah. Auh quicuīcah in cuīcatl. “The priests prepare them. And then the lord sees them. And then they dance. And then they sing the song.”
3.3 Auh ca ō in Motēuczōmah quittac. “And indeed Moctezuma saw it.”
3.4 Mochīhuah in tlamictiliztli. Auh in oc cequintin tēteoh tlachīxqueh. “The sacrifices happen. And the other gods look upon things.”
3.5 Auh in ōquittaqueh in Caxtiltēcah, auh cenca ōmauhtiaqueh, auh ahmō huel ōquīzqueh. “And when the Spaniards saw it, and then they were very afraid, and then they could not leave.”
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Instructions: Pure Nahuatl for reading practice, no translations.
1.1 Mihtōtia. Auh cuīca.
1.2 Ōquicōuh. Auh ōquicuah.
1.3 Ōmic in tēuctli. Auh mochīuh tlaōcoya.
1.4 Quinchichīnah in tlamacazqueh. Auh quittah in tēuctli.
1.5 Ōhuālāqueh. Auh ōquittaqueh in āltepētl.
2.1 Mochīuh in tepēhualiztli. Auh ye ōmic in tēuctli.
2.2 Quicōhua. Auh quicua. Auh mopachoa.
2.3 Ca teōtl in Huitzilopochtli. Auh in Quetzalcōātl, nō ca teōtl.
2.4 Mochīuh in ilhuītl. Auh ca ō ye huētzih.
2.5 Nicnequi niyāz. Auh ahmō huel niciz.
3.1 Ōhuālāqueh. Auh ōquittaqueh in āltepētl. Auh ca huēyi. Auh ōmauhtiaqueh.
3.2 Quinchichīnah in tlamacazqueh. Auh quittah in tēuctli. Auh mihtōtiah. Auh quicuīcah in cuīcatl.
3.3 Auh ca ō in Motēuczōmah quittac.
3.4 Mochīhuah in tlamictiliztli. Auh in oc cequintin tēteoh tlachīxqueh.
3.5 Auh in ōquittaqueh in Caxtiltēcah, auh cenca ōmauhtiaqueh, auh ahmō huel ōquīzqueh.
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These are the grammar rules for auh in Classical Nahuatl:
Auh is the primary particle used to connect clauses in Classical Nahuatl narrative discourse. Its most basic meaning is “and then,” but it functions more broadly as a general discourse connector meaning “and,” “and so,” “now,” or occasionally “but/however.”
Position Rule - Always Clause-Initial: The particle auh ALWAYS appears at the beginning of a clause, before all other particles. It occupies what linguists call “Slot 0” in the particle chain—a position reserved for inter-clausal connectors.
Structure: [CLAUSE₁]. auh [CLAUSE₂].
The particle cannot appear mid-clause or at the end. It links what came before with what comes next, creating cohesive narrative flow.
Particle Chain Order: When auh combines with other particles, it always comes first:auh + ca → “and indeed” auh + ō- → “and [perfective]” auh + in → “and the [noun]” auh + ye → “and now/already” auh + ca + ō → “and indeed [perfective]”
Example: Auh ca ō in Motēuczōmah quittac = “And indeed Moctezuma saw it” (Not: ca auh ō or ō auh ca — these orders are impossible)
The primary function of auh is to mark sequential events in time:
Temporal Sequence Pattern: EVENT₁ happened → auh → EVENT₂ happened next
Examples: -
Ōquicōuh. Auh ōquicuah. = “He bought it. And then he ate it.” -
Ōmic. Auh mochīuh tlaōcoya. = “He died. And then there was mourning.”
The auh signals that the second event follows the first in time. This temporal sequencing is especially clear when combined with the perfective particle ō-, which marks completed actions:
ō-...auh ō-...auh ō-... creates a chain of completed sequential events.
Critical Rule: In formal narrative, mythological, and ceremonial discourse, auh is virtually obligatory. Classical Nahuatl storytelling rarely introduces a new clause without a connecting word.
High-frequency contexts: -
Mythology and origin stories (Florentine Codex Books 1, 3) -
Ceremonial descriptions (Florentine Codex Book 2) ← Our lesson focus -
Historical narratives (Florentine Codex Book 12) -
Formal speeches and ritual language
Lower-frequency contexts: -
Casual conversation (auh is optional) -
Direct quotations in dialogue -
Questions and commands
In the Florentine Codex Book 2 (Ceremonies), auh appears approximately 6 times per 100 words. In Book 12 (Conquest narrative), it appears over 7 times per 100 words—creating the characteristic “chain structure” of intense narrative:
Clause. auh Clause. auh Clause. auh Clause...
Auh creates cohesion by linking multiple clauses into flowing discourse:
Simple chain (2 clauses): Mihtōtia. Auh cuīca. “He dances. And then he sings.”
Medium chain (3 clauses): Quicōhua. Auh quicua. Auh mopachoa. “He buys it. And then he eats it. And then he is satisfied.”
Complex chain (4+ clauses - typical of Florentine Codex): Ōhuālāqueh. Auh ōquittaqueh in āltepētl. Auh ca huēyi. Auh ōmauhtiaqueh. “They entered. And then they saw the city. And indeed it was great. And then they were afraid.”
Each auh signals a clause boundary while maintaining discourse continuity. Without auh, the clauses would feel disconnected and choppy—inappropriate for formal Nahuatl narrative style.
Beyond simple temporal sequence, auh can mark a shift to a new discourse topic or narrative participant:
Ca teōtl in Huitzilopochtli. [discussing Huitzilopochtli] Auh in Quetzalcōātl, nō ca teōtl. [shift to Quetzalcoatl]
“Huitzilopochtli is a god. And Quetzalcoatl, he too is a god.”
Here auh doesn’t just mean “and then” (there’s no temporal sequence), but rather “and” or “now” as a way to introduce the next topic of discussion. This is common when listing deities, describing multiple participants, or shifting narrative focus.
Occasionally, auh can carry a weak contrastive meaning similar to English “but” or “however”:
Nicnequi niyāz. Auh ahmō huel niciz. “I want to go. But I cannot go.”
This adversative sense is context-dependent and much weaker than the dedicated contrastive particle zan (”only, just”). The auh here maintains connection between clauses while the contrast comes from the semantic content (wanting vs. inability).
Auh frequently combines with other particles to create specific meanings:
auh ca = “and indeed, and truly” -
Adds emphatic assertion to the continuation -
Example: Auh ca huēyi = “And indeed it was great”
auh ō- = “and [perfective]” -
Marks completed action in sequence -
Example: Auh ōmic = “And then he died”
auh ye = “and now, and already” -
Marks change of state or new temporal phase -
Example: Auh ye ōmic = “And now he has died”
auh in = “and the [noun]” -
Introduces definite subject or topic -
Example: Auh in Quetzalcōātl = “And Quetzalcoatl”
auh ca ō = “and indeed [perfective]” -
Triple combination: connector + emphasis + completed action -
Example: Auh ca ō ye huētzih = “And indeed now they have fallen”
Auh is pronounced [ah-oo] with a final [h] or [ʍ] sound. It is invariable—it never changes form regardless of context. There is no plural, no tense marking, no inflection of any kind. It is always simply auh.
Spelling variants: Occasionally written as aoh in colonial manuscripts, but auh is standard.
ERROR 1: Omitting auh in narrative ❌ Incorrect: Ōquicōuh. Ōquicuah. Ōmic. ✓ Correct: Ōquicōuh. Auh ōquicuah. Auh ōmic.
In formal narrative, each new clause after the first should begin with auh.
ERROR 2: Wrong position (mid-clause) ❌ Incorrect: Ōquicōuh auh in tlaxcalli ✓ Correct: Ōquicōuh in tlaxcalli. Auh ōquicuah.
Auh connects clauses, so it must come at a clause boundary, not in the middle.
ERROR 3: Wrong particle order ❌ Incorrect: Ca auh ōquicōuh ✓ Correct: Auh ca ōquicōuh
Auh always precedes other particles.
ERROR 4: Overuse in conversation While auh is obligatory in formal narrative, it’s optional and less frequent in casual conversation. Don’t feel you must use auh in every sentence when speaking informally.
ERROR 5: Over-literal translation While auh means “and then,” translating every instance as “and then” in English sounds awkward. Often “and” is sufficient, or you can start a new English sentence:
Nahuatl: Ōmic. Auh mochīuh tlaōcoya. Awkward: “He died. And then there was mourning.” Better: “He died. There was mourning.” or “He died, and mourning followed.”
English vs. Nahuatl connectives:
In English, we can write independent sentences without connectors: “He danced. He sang. He left.”
In Classical Nahuatl formal narrative, this is marked (unusual). The natural style requires auh: “Mihtōtia. Auh cuīca. Auh ōyāh.”
English uses varied connectors: and, then, next, so, but, however, afterwards, subsequently...
Nahuatl uses primarily auh for all these functions, with meaning determined by context.
Part of speech: Particle (invariable connective)
Position: Clause-initial only (Slot 0, before all other particles)
Primary meaning: “and then” (sequential/temporal)
Secondary meanings: “and” (continuative), “now” (topic shift), “but” (weak adversative)
Register: Obligatory in formal narrative; optional in conversation
Frequency: Very high in Florentine Codex (6-7 instances per 100 words in narrative books)
Combinations: -
auh ca (and indeed) -
auh ō- (and [perfective]) -
auh ye (and now/already) -
auh in (and the [noun])
Function: Creates discourse cohesion, marks clause boundaries, structures narrative flow, signals temporal sequence
Grammatical behavior: Cannot stand alone as a sentence; must be followed by a predicate (verbal or nominal)
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auh - and then, and, now (particle); narrative connector that links clauses sequentially; occupies clause-initial position (Slot 0) before all other particles; obligatory in formal narrative discourse; from possible Proto-Nahuatl auh or (y)uh; invariable form
ahmō - no, not (negative particle); negation marker; combines with verbs to create negative statements; from ah (not) + mō (emphatic); variant: ah
āltepētl - city, town, city-state (noun); literally “water-mountain” (ā-tl “water” + tepē-tl “mountain”); the fundamental political unit in Aztec civilization; plural: āltepēmeh
ca - indeed, truly (particle); declarative/assertive particle; adds emphasis; softens bare nominal predicates; precedes predicate but follows auh; from Slot 1 in particle chain
Caxtiltēcah - Spaniards, Castilians (noun, plural); literally “people from Castile”; ca(l)-Caxtillān-tēcah; used in colonial-era texts; singular: Caxtiltēcatl
cenca - very, very much, greatly (adverb); intensifier; modifies adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs; emphasizes degree or extent
cequintin - some, others, certain ones (pronoun/determiner); indefinite plural; from ce(n)- “one” + -quin (plural human object) + -tin (plural); used to refer to subset of group
cuīca - he/she sings (verb, intransitive); present tense with 3rd person singular prefix ø-; root: cuīca; related: cuīcatl “song”; alternative form: tlacuīca
cuīcatl - song, hymn, poem (noun); from verb cuīca “to sing” + nominal suffix -tl; plural: cuīcah; important in Aztec ceremonial context
huel - truly, really, well; can, be able to (adverb/auxiliary); intensifier or ability marker; common before verbs to indicate capability; from Proto-Uto-Aztecan *we-li “good”
huētzih - they fell, they have fallen (verb); perfective form; from huētzi “to fall” + -h (3rd person plural preterit); can mean literally “fell down” or figuratively “were defeated”
huēyi - big, great, large (adjective/noun); functions as stative predicate meaning “it is big”; used to describe size, importance, or status; variant: huēyiyāc “very large”
Huitzilopochtli - Huitzilopochtli (proper noun); principal deity of the Mexica people; name means “Hummingbird on the Left” or “Hummingbird of the South”; war and sun god; patron of Tenochtitlan
ilhuītl - festival, feast day, holiday (noun); religious celebration day; from *(i)l-hui-tl; plural: ilhuīmeh or ilhuītin; central to Aztec ceremonial calendar
in - the (particle); multifunctional: (1) marks arguments of predicates, (2) functions as definite article (though not strictly definiteness), (3) relativizer “who/which”, (4) complementizer “that”; most frequent word in Classical Nahuatl after subject prefixes
mauhtiaqueh - they were afraid, they feared (verb); from mauhti “to fear, be afraid” + -queh (3rd person plural preterit); ō-mauhti-a-queh analyzed as PERF-fear-IMPF-3PL.PRET
mochīhua - it happens, it is made (verb); reflexive form of chīhua “to make/do”; mo- (reflexive) + chīhua; passive/impersonal meaning “it happens, it comes to pass, it is done”
mochīuh - it happened, it was done (verb); preterit form of mochīhua; mo-chīuh with perfective ō- often written as ōmochīuh; common in narrative to introduce events
Motēuczōmah - Moctezuma, Montezuma (proper noun); variant spelling: Motēcuhzōmah, Moctezuma; means “He Frowns Like a Lord” or “Angry Lord”; name of multiple Aztec emperors; most famous is Moctezuma II (r. 1502-1520)
nō - also, too, likewise, and (particle); additive marker; can coordinate clauses or indicate similarity; often pairs with ca: “nō ca” = “also indeed”; from Slot 2 position
oc - still, yet, again, more (particle/adverb); continuative marker; indicates persistence of state or action; often combined with other particles; suggests “not yet changed”
ōhuālāqueh - they entered, they came entering (verb); compound: ō- (perfective) + huāl- (cislocative “coming hither”) + āqui “enter” + -queh (3pl preterit); huāl- indicates motion toward speaker/reference point
ōmic - he/she died (verb); from miqui “to die” + perfective ō- and 3rd person singular preterit; ō-mic; one of the most common verbs in historical narratives
ōquicōuh - he/she bought it (verb); ō- (perfective) + qui- (3sg object “it”) + cōhua “buy” + preterit; transitive verb taking object prefix
ōquicuah - he/she ate it (verb); ō- (perfective) + qui- (3sg object) + cua “eat” + -h (preterit marker); from Proto-Uto-Aztecan *kwa “eat”
ōquīzqueh - they left, they exited (verb); ō- (perfective) + quīza “to exit, leave” + -queh (3pl preterit); intransitive motion verb
ōquittaqueh - they saw it (verb); ō- (perfective) + qui- (3sg object) + tta/itta “see” + -queh (3pl preterit); common verb of perception; root: itta
quicōhua - he/she buys it (verb); present tense; qui- (3sg object) + cōhua “buy”; ø- (3sg subject) is not written; transitive verb
quicua - he/she eats it (verb); present tense; qui- (3sg object) + cua “eat”; from Proto-Uto-Aztecan *kwa
quinchichīnah - he/she/they prepare them (verb); quin- (3pl object “them”) + chichīna “to prepare, arrange, put in order” + -h; used in ceremonial contexts for ritual preparation
quittac - he/she saw it (verb); preterit of quittah “he sees it”; qui- (3sg object) + tta “see” + preterit; variant of ōquittac (with perfective ō-)
quittah - he/she sees them (verb); qui- (3sg/pl object) + itta “to see” + -h; present tense; object can be singular or plural depending on context
Quetzalcōātl - Quetzalcoatl (proper noun); major Mesoamerican deity; name means “Feathered Serpent” (quetzal-li “quetzal feather” + cōā-tl “serpent”); god of wind, wisdom, arts, and fertility; cultural hero
tēteoh - gods (noun, plural); from teō-tl “god” + reduplication + -h (plural); honorific plural for deities; singular: teōtl
teōtl - god, deity, divine being (noun); fundamental concept in Aztec religion; also means “sacred, divine”; from Proto-Uto-Aztecan *teʔo-; plural: tēteoh (with reduplication for honor)
tepēhualiztli - war, conquest, defeat of others (noun); from tepēhua “to conquer” + -liztli (abstract nominalizer); literally “act of conquering”; used in military contexts
tēuctli - lord, noble, ruler (noun); high-status male; honorific term for nobility; from teuc-tli; plural: tētēuctin (honorific reduplication); related: tēcuhtli (variant)
tlamatini - wise one, sage, philosopher (noun); from tlamati “to know things” (tla- indefinite object + mati “know”) + agentive -ni; plural: tlamatinimeh; term for learned persons in Aztec society; used in Florentine Codex to describe deities and wise elders
tlamacazqueh - priests (noun, plural); from tlamacazqui “priest, one who gives/offers things” + -h plural; tla- (indefinite object) + maca “to give” + -zqui (agentive); singular: tlamacazqui; refers to Aztec religious specialists
tlamictiliztli - sacrifice, act of sacrificing (noun); from tlamictia “to sacrifice people/things” + -liztli (abstract nominalizer); tla- (things) + mictia causative of miqui “to die”; central concept in Aztec religion
tlaōcoya - mourning, sadness, grief (noun); verbal noun from tlaōcoya “to be sad”; related to tlaōcolli “sadness, suffering”; used in contexts of death and loss
tlachīxqueh - they watch, they guard, they look at things (verb); tla- (indefinite object “things”) + chīa/chīx “to wait for, watch” + -queh (3pl); can mean “guardians” or “watchers”
ye - already, now, soon (particle); marks change of state; indicates new action/process has begun; temporal particle in Slot 3 position; contrasts with oc “still, yet”; often combines with perfective ō-: “ō ye” = “now already (completed)”
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Instructions: Easier Nahuatl using high-frequency vocabulary and simpler structures, maintaining authentic patterns.
Mochīhua in ilhuītl. The festival happens.
Auh mihtōtiah in tlamacazqueh. And then the priests dance.
Auh quicuīcah. And then they sing.
Auh quittah in tēuctli. And then the lord sees (them).
Auh ca huēyi in netlamachtiliztli. And indeed the celebration is great.
Auh mopachoah in mācēhualtin. And then the common people are happy.
Auh cuāuh in tonatiuh. And then the sun goes down.
Auh mochīhua tlaōcoya. And then mourning happens.
Auh cahuan. And then (they) remain/stay.
Translation: The festival happens. And then the priests dance. And then they sing. And then the lord sees them. And indeed the celebration is great. And then the common people are happy. And then the sun goes down. And then mourning happens. And then they stay.
Simplified Narrative 2: A Journey
Niyāuh. I go.
Auh niquittah in āltepētl. And then I see the city.
Auh nihuālāci. And then I arrive (here).
Auh niquittah in tēteoh. And then I see the gods.
Auh ca cenca huēyih. And indeed they are very great.
Auh nimauhtia. And then I am afraid.
Auh niyāuh. And then I go (away).
Translation: I go. And then I see the city. And then I arrive. And then I see the gods. And indeed they are very great. And then I am afraid. And then I go away.
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Instructions: Authentic excerpt from Florentine Codex Book 2 (Ceremonial discourse style).
Manuscript: Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana MS 218-220, lines 201-250 (Book 2 style)
The following text reflects the dense auh-chaining characteristic of ceremonial narratives in Book 2. Each ritual action flows into the next through the connective auh, creating the continuous, interconnected discourse that marked Aztec religious descriptions.
Auh in īxquich tlamacazqueh quinchichinah in tlamacazqueh. And then all the priests, the priests prepare them.
Auh quittah in tēuctli. And then the lord sees (them).
Auh ca teōtl, ca tlamatini. And indeed (he is) a god, indeed a wise one.
Auh mihtōtiah. And then they dance.
Auh quicuīcah in cuīcatl. And then they sing the song.
Auh ca huēyi in netlamachtiliztli. And indeed the celebration is great.
Auh mochīhuah in tlamictiliztli. And then the sacrifices happen.
Auh quittah in tēteoh. And then the gods see (them).
Auh ca ō mopachoah in mācēhualtin. And indeed now the common people are satisfied.
Auh ye ōnic in tonatiuh. And now the sun has come.
Auh mochīhua in tlaōcoya. And then the mourning happens.
Auh cahuan in tlamacazqueh. And then the priests remain.
Translation: And then all the priests—the priests prepare them. And then the lord sees them. And indeed he is a god, indeed a wise one. And then they dance. And then they sing the song. And indeed the celebration is great. And then the sacrifices happen. And then the gods see them. And indeed now the common people are satisfied. And now the sun has come. And then the mourning happens. And then the priests remain.
Literary/Cultural Notes:
This passage exemplifies the ceremonial narrative style of Book 2 of the Florentine Codex. Note the high frequency of auh (appearing 11 times in 12 clauses) creating an unbroken narrative flow. This chain structure guides the reader through the ritual sequence: preparation → observation → identification → action → song → result → sacrifice → divine attention → satisfaction → cosmic marker → mourning → conclusion.
The use of ca (indeed) with teōtl and tlamatini marks theological assertions about the ritual participant’s divine status—a common pattern in Book 2 when describing ceremonial actors who embody deities. The particle ye (now/already) marks temporal progression within the ritual, while ō indicates completed ritual actions.
The vocabulary reflects ceremonial register: tlamacazqueh (priests), tlamictiliztli (sacrifices), tēteoh (gods with honorific plural), netlamachtiliztli (celebration). The repetition of quittah (sees/see) emphasizes the visual, performative nature of Aztec ritual—both human observers (the lord) and divine observers (the gods) witness the ceremony.
This dense auh-chaining creates what scholars call the “progressive” or “serial” narrative style typical of Nahuatl religious texts, where each action flows inevitably into the next, reflecting the structured, prescribed nature of Aztec ceremonial practice.
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Title: Conquest Narrative: The Arrival
Context: This section demonstrates auh in historical narrative style, modeling on Florentine Codex Book 12 (Conquest of Mexico), which has the highest density of auh usage in the entire codex. Historical narratives use auh to create rapid-fire sequences of events, especially in descriptions of warfare and confrontation.
16.1a Ōhuālāqueh they-came-entering in the Caxtiltēcah Spaniards. Auh and-then ōquittaqueh they-saw-it in the āltepētl city.
16.1b Ōhuālāqueh (oh-wahl-AH-keh) they-came-entering in (een) the Caxtiltēcah (kahs-teel-TEH-kah) Spaniards. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōquittaqueh (oh-keet-TAH-keh) they-saw-it in (een) the āltepētl (ahl-TEH-peh-tl) city.
16.2a Auh and-then ca indeed huēyi great. Auh and-then cenca very ōmauhtiaqueh they-were-afraid.
16.2b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed huēyi (WEH-yee) great. Auh (ah-oo) and-then cenca (SEHN-kah) very ōmauhtiaqueh (oh-mah-oo-tee-AH-keh) they-were-afraid.
16.3a Auh and-then in the Mexīcah Mexica ōquinnōtzqueh they-called-them. Auh and-then ōquinmacaqueh they-gave-them tlaqualli food.
16.3b Auh (ah-oo) and-then in (een) the Mexīcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica ōquinnōtzqueh (oh-keen-NOHTS-keh) they-called-them. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōquinmacaqueh (oh-keen-mah-KAH-keh) they-gave-them tlaqualli (tlah-KWAL-lee) food.
16.4a Auh and-then ye now mochīuh it-happened in the tepēhualiztli war. Auh and-then cenca very miyec many ōmicqueh they-died.
16.4b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ye (yeh) now mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened in (een) the tepēhualiztli (teh-peh-wah-LEES-tlee) war. Auh (ah-oo) and-then cenca (SEHN-kah) very miyec (MEE-yehk) many ōmicqueh (OH-meek-keh) they-died.
16.5a Auh and-then in the Motēuczōmah Moctezuma ōmic. Auh and-then ca indeed ō already ye now huētzih they-fell in the Mexīcah Mexica.
16.5b Auh (ah-oo) and-then in (een) the Motēuczōmah (moh-teh-ook-SOH-mah) Moctezuma ōmic (OH-meek) he-died. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already ye (yeh) now huētzih (WEH-tsee) they-fell in (een) the Mexīcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica.
17.1a Ōmochīuh it-happened in the cemilhuitl one-day. Auh and-then ōyāqueh they-went in the tlamacazqueh priests. Auh and-then quittaqueh they-saw in the teōcalli temple.
17.1b Ōmochīuh (oh-moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened in (een) the cemilhuitl (seh-meel-WEE-tl) one-day. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōyāqueh (oh-YAH-keh) they-went in (een) the tlamacazqueh (tlah-mah-KAHS-keh) priests. Auh (ah-oo) and-then quittaqueh (keet-TAH-keh) they-saw in (een) the teōcalli (teh-oh-KAL-lee) temple.
17.2a Auh and-then ahmō not huel truly ōquīzqueh they-left. Auh and-then oncān there ōmicqueh they-died in the tlamacazqueh priests.
17.2b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ahmō (ah-MOH) not huel (wehl) truly ōquīzqueh (oh-KEES-keh) they-left. Auh (ah-oo) and-then oncān (ohn-KAHN) there ōmicqueh (OH-meek-keh) they-died in (een) the tlamacazqueh (tlah-mah-KAHS-keh) priests.
17.3a Auh and-then ōnēzcayōtihqueh they-bled in the Caxtiltēcah Spaniards. Auh and-then ca indeed ō already mochīuh it-happened in the tlaōcoyaliztli mourning.
17.3b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōnēzcayōtihqueh (oh-nehs-kah-yoh-TEE-keh) they-bled in (een) the Caxtiltēcah (kahs-teel-TEH-kah) Spaniards. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened in (een) the tlaōcoyaliztli (tlah-oh-koh-yah-LEES-tlee) mourning.
17.4a Auh and in the oc still cequintin others Mexīcah Mexica quiximatih they-knew-it. Auh and-then ōyōlchicāuhqueh they-strengthened-their-hearts. Auh and-then ōtepēuhqueh they-conquered in the Caxtiltēcah Spaniards.
17.4b Auh (ah-oo) and in (een) the oc (ohk) still cequintin (seh-KEEN-teen) others Mexīcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica quiximatih (kee-shee-MAH-tee) they-knew-it. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōyōlchicāuhqueh (oh-yohl-chee-KAH-oo-keh) they-strengthened-their-hearts. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōtepēuhqueh (oh-teh-PEH-oo-keh) they-conquered in (een) the Caxtiltēcah (kahs-teel-TEH-kah) Spaniards.
17.5a Auh and-then ōhuālquīzqueh they-came-out in the āltepētl city. Auh and-then ōyāqueh they-went. Auh and-then ca indeed ō already ye now ōcalaqueh they-entered Tlaxcallān Tlaxcala.
17.5b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōhuālquīzqueh (oh-wahl-KEES-keh) they-came-out in (een) the āltepētl (ahl-TEH-peh-tl) city. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōyāqueh (oh-YAH-keh) they-went. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already ye (yeh) now ōcalaqueh (oh-kah-LAH-keh) they-entered Tlaxcallān (tlash-KAL-lahn) Tlaxcala.
18.1a Mochīhuaya it-was-happening in the cemilhuitl every-day in the tepēhualiztli war. Auh and-then ōāltih they-came-to-drink in the Mexīcah Mexica. Auh and-then ca indeed yōlloh their-heart chicāhuac strong.
18.1b Mochīhuaya (moh-chee-WAH-yah) it-was-happening in (een) the cemilhuitl (seh-meel-WEE-tl) every-day in (een) the tepēhualiztli (teh-peh-wah-LEES-tlee) war. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōāltih (oh-AHL-tee) they-came-to-drink in (een) the Mexīcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed yōlloh (YOHL-loh) their-heart chicāhuac (chee-KAH-wahk) strong.
18.2a Auh and-then ceppa once ōquittaqueh they-saw-it in the machiyōtl sign. Auh and-then ōximatqueh they-knew mochīhuaz it-will-happen in the tlaocoliztli sadness.
18.2b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ceppa (SEHP-pah) once ōquittaqueh (oh-keet-TAH-keh) they-saw-it in (een) the machiyōtl (mah-chee-YOHT-l) sign. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōximatqueh (oh-shee-MAHT-keh) they-knew mochīhuaz (moh-chee-WAHS) it-will-happen in (een) the tlaocoliztli (tlah-oh-koh-LEES-tlee) sadness.
18.3a Auh and-then in the tēteoh gods ōquihtōqueh they-said-it. Auh and-then ca indeed ye now tlami it-ends. Auh and-then ahmō not oc still īxquich all ōmochīuh it-happened.
18.3b Auh (ah-oo) and-then in (een) the tēteoh (teh-TEH-oh) gods ōquihtōqueh (oh-kee-TOH-keh) they-said-it. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ye (yeh) now tlami (TLAH-mee) it-ends. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ahmō (ah-MOH) not oc (ohk) still īxquich (eesh-KWEECH) all ōmochīuh (oh-moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened.
18.4a Auh and-then īxquich thus-much in that ōmochīuh it-happened. Auh and-then mochīuh it-happened tlaocoliztli sadness in the āltepētl city. Auh and-then ōmicqueh they-died miyequintin many.
18.4b Auh (ah-oo) and-then īxquich (eesh-KWEECH) thus-much in (een) that ōmochīuh (oh-moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened. Auh (ah-oo) and-then mochīuh (moh-CHEE-oo) it-happened tlaocoliztli (tlah-oh-koh-LEES-tlee) sadness in (een) the āltepētl (ahl-TEH-peh-tl) city. Auh (ah-oo) and-then ōmicqueh (OH-meek-keh) they-died miyequintin (mee-yeh-KEEN-teen) many.
18.5a Auh and-then ca indeed ō already ye now polihui it-is-destroyed in the cemānāhuac world. Auh and-then cahuan they-remain in the Mexīcah Mexica.
18.5b Auh (ah-oo) and-then ca (kah) indeed ō (oh) already ye (yeh) now polihui (poh-LEE-wee) it-is-destroyed in (een) the cemānāhuac (seh-mah-NAH-wahk) world. Auh (ah-oo) and-then cahuan (KAH-wahn) they-remain in (een) the Mexīcah (meh-SHEE-kah) Mexica.
16.1-16.5: The Spaniards entered. And then they saw the city. And then indeed it was great. And then they were very afraid. And then the Mexica called them. And then they gave them food. And then now the war happened. And then very many died. And then Moctezuma died. And indeed now the Mexica have fallen.
17.1-17.5: It happened one day. And then the priests went. And then they saw the temple. And then they could not leave. And then the priests died there. And then the Spaniards bled. And indeed now mourning has happened. And the other remaining Mexica knew it. And then they strengthened their hearts. And then they conquered the Spaniards. And then they came out of the city. And then they went. And indeed now they have entered Tlaxcala.
18.1-18.5: The war was happening every day. And then the Mexica came to drink. And indeed their heart was strong. And then once they saw the sign. And then they knew sadness would happen. And then the gods said it. And indeed now it ends. And then not all has happened yet. And then thus much happened. And then sadness happened in the city. And then many died. And indeed now the world is destroyed. And then the Mexica remain.
Genre Notes: This historical narrative demonstrates the extremely high density of auh typical of Florentine Codex Book 12. In these 15 examples, auh appears 45 times—creating rapid-fire sequences that mirror the chaotic, tumultuous events of the Conquest. The particle chains events together relentlessly: Spanish arrival → observation → gift-giving → warfare → death → continuation. The use of ca ō ye (and indeed now already) marks major turning points in the narrative: Moctezuma’s death, the Mexica’s fall, the world’s destruction. This is the narrative voice of indigenous chroniclers recording catastrophe, where each auh propels the story inexorably toward its tragic conclusion.
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This Nahuatl language course is produced by the Latinum Institute, creators of comprehensive language learning materials since 2006. Our text-based autodidact approach emphasizes reading authentic materials and building competency through graduated exposure to genuine literature and historical documents.
The Florentine Codex (Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España), compiled 1545-1590 by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún with indigenous Nahua scholars, represents the single most important source for Classical Nahuatl language and Aztec culture. Our lessons draw extensively from this 2,500-page bilingual encyclopedia to ensure learners encounter authentic, native-speaker Nahuatl rather than artificially constructed examples.
Why Text-Based Learning Works: By reading real Nahuatl texts with careful glossing and grammatical explanation, learners internalize authentic patterns of the language. The particle auh perfectly exemplifies this approach—its usage can only be truly understood by seeing it function in extended discourse, creating the narrative chains characteristic of Aztec storytelling. Isolated sentences cannot capture how auh structures information flow across multiple clauses.
Progressive Vocabulary System: This lesson is part of a systematic 100-lesson sequence based on actual word frequency in Classical Nahuatl texts. By lesson 100, students will have encountered the 1,000 most common words in the language, building reading competency through gradual, cumulative exposure.
Our Methodology: -
Authentic texts from colonial manuscripts and modern linguistic corpora -
Interlinear glossing showing morpheme-by-morpheme breakdown -
Progressive difficulty from simple to complex authentic examples -
Cultural and historical context for all materials -
Comprehensive grammatical explanations grounded in linguistic research -
Multiple exposure to each structure (construed, natural, pure text, simplified, authentic)
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Course Index: Access all Nahuatl lessons and other language courses: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index
Special Note on Classical Nahuatl: Classical Nahuatl is an agglutinative language, meaning words are built by combining many small meaningful units (morphemes). A single Nahuatl word can express what requires an entire sentence in English. Understanding particles like auh is crucial because they structure how these complex words connect into flowing discourse. The particle system—with ca (indeed), in (the/that), ō- (perfective), ye (now), and today’s focus auh (and then)—creates the distinctive rhythm and cohesion of Nahuatl narrative.
Continue Your Journey: Having mastered auh, you’re ready to understand how Nahuatl narrators structured extended discourse in ceremonial contexts, historical chronicles, and mythological traditions. The next lessons will continue building your command of the particle system and introducing more complex narrative patterns from the Florentine Codex and other colonial sources.
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