What does "he" mean in Vietnamese?
For the autodidact student: the English word "he" is a pronoun with one job. It stands for a man or a boy who has already been mentioned ("He is my brother", "I saw him", "his book"), and it does the job in the same way whoever the man is: a king, a friend, a stranger and a child are all "he". The vocabulary list that this course follows gives "he" as a pronoun, Grammar, 3rd person masculine, subject pronoun. Vietnamese has no word that does this alone. It says "he" with two words, and the first of them is chosen with care.
- The ordinary "he": anh ấy (anh with no tone mark, level tone; ấy with the acute accent, rising tone). It means "he" for a man of one's own age or a little older, and it is the headword of this lesson. - The respectful "he": ông ấy, for an older or respected man (16.13). - The familiar "he" of the young: em ấy for a younger person (16.26), bạn ấy for a friend of one's own age, cậu ấy for a boy or young man. - The rough "he": nó (Lesson 10) and hắn (Section F). Neither is the word for a polite sentence.
Five things differ from English:
1. "He" is two words. Ấy means "that" and cannot be a pronoun alone. A word for a family relation or a rank stands before it, and the pair means "that older brother", "that older man", and so "he": Anh ấy đói (16.1). The first word is the one that tells the listener what the speaker thinks of the man. 2. The first word is chosen as if you were speaking to him. Anna speaks to Nam's cousin as anh Sơn, and so she says anh ấy of him (16.18, 16.28). She speaks to Nam's father as bác (Lesson 15), and so she says bác ấy of him (16.24). English "he" does not ask who the man is. Vietnamese does. 3. One form for every job. Anh ấy đói (16.1) is "he", Tôi thấy anh ấy (16.3) is "him", and chị gái anh ấy (16.7) is "his older sister". As with tôi (Lesson 8) the pronoun never changes, and its place in the sentence shows the job. 4. Vietnamese repeats where English substitutes. English avoids saying "he" twice for two different men by using names. Vietnamese says anh ấy again, and sometimes the listener has to work out which man is meant (16.10). For this reason a name with a kinship word, anh Sơn, is often used again in place of the pronoun. 5. The word for "he" is not the word for "I" or "you". The bare anh is "older brother", and by use "you" to a man a little older than the speaker, or "I" from an older man to a younger person (Lessons 8 and 9). Without ấy it is not "he".
The word in the dictionaries. English Wiktionary lists anh ấy as a pronoun, "he", for a man of equal or slightly greater social status, and says that it is Northern. It lists ấy as a determiner, "that" (chiefly Northern), and gives anh ấy, chị ấy, ông ấy, bà ấy and cô ấy among the compounds. Its entry for ông ấy gives "he (older or respected man)" and the Central and Southern forms ông nớ and ổng. For the bare anh it lists "older brother", "male cousin" and, as pronouns, "I", "you" and, in literary writing, "he" of a young man. It records hắn as a pronoun that is archaic or derogatory in the North and the South and familiar in the Centre, and ảnh as the Southern "he" for a man of equal or slightly greater status. The Vietnamese Wiktionary defines ấy as a pronoun that refers to something already mentioned or known but not present, and gives Đưa cho tôi quyển sách ấy "Give me that book". A learner's guide to Vietnamese pronouns (Preply) agrees with the English Wiktionary and sets the forms in order: anh ấy and chị ấy are respectful, ông ấy and bà ấy are for the elderly or for people of high standing, cậu ấy and cô ấy depend on age and context, người ấy "that person" is formal and neutral, nó can sound dismissive of a person, and hắn is "somewhat negative", implying distance or disapproval. The Wikipedia article on Vietnamese pronouns lists nó, hắn and y among the third-person forms that do not take a kinship word.
Already met. These words have been in the course for some time: ông ấy (4.12), anh ấy (11.14; 13.11), bà ấy (14.16) and chị ấy (15.11). Lesson 10 set anh ấy, chị ấy, ông ấy, bà ấy, cô ấy and bạn ấy beside nó, and named the Southern contractions. This lesson sets all of them in order, and chooses one.
Why anh ấy, and not another word. The list asks for "3rd person masculine, subject pronoun", and anh ấy is the commonest and most neutral of the Vietnamese answers: it fits a man who is the speaker's age or a little older, which is whom a learner most often talks about. Ông ấy is for the old and the respected, em ấy and nó for the young, and hắn for the dictionary and for fiction. The learner who has anh ấy can speak of most men. The others have their place in Section D.
Orthography. Anh is a + nh, and ấy is â with the acute accent: the vowel mark and the tone mark are on the same letter. The same letters with other marks are other words: ảnh (photograph in the North; "he" in the South), ánh (ray of light) and ấy against đấy and này. Tone is part of the spelling.
Frequently asked.
What does "anh ấy" mean in Vietnamese? "He", said of a man of one's own age or a little older: Anh ấy là bác sĩ. (16.2)
How do I say "he" of an old man? Ông ấy, as in Ông ấy là người rất tốt. (16.13)
How do I say "his book"? Quyển sách của anh ấy. (16.8)
- Anh ấy = he, him, his: Anh ấy đói. (16.1), Tôi thấy anh ấy. (16.3), chị gái anh ấy (16.7) - "He" is a kinship or rank word + ấy, chosen as if you were speaking to him: anh ấy, ông ấy, em ấy, bác ấy - The bare anh is "I" or "you", and not "he" - A man who is not at the table is often named again, and not replaced: anh Sơn (16.19) - Nó and hắn are rough "he"s: not for a polite sentence about an adult
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The IPA in this lesson is a broad transcription of the Hanoi standard, with the tone written in Chao tone letters after each syllable, as in the earlier lessons. The six tones, in Hanoi values:
- Level, no mark: ma /maː˧˧/ "ghost" - Falling, grave accent: mà /maː˨˩/ "but" - Rising, acute accent: má /maː˧˦/ "mother (Southern); cheek" - Dipping, hook above: mả /maː˧˩/ "grave, tomb" - Broken rising, tilde: mã /maː˧˥/ "horse (Sino-Vietnamese)", with a glottal break in the middle of the vowel - Heavy, dot below: mạ /maː˧˨ʔ/ "rice seedling", short, low, ending in a glottal catch
Key words for this lesson:
- anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ — the word begins with a glottal stop, which English does not write. The vowel is a short a, and the final -nh is [ŋ] with a glide [j] before it, as in canh (Lesson 15). In the South the ending is commonly [n]. - ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ — ấ is a short [ə], the vowel of English "but" said briefly, with a glide [j] after it. The acute tone rises.- anh ấy /ʔajŋ˧˧ ʔəj˧˦/ — two syllables, said as one phrase, with the stress on neither: each syllable keeps its tone. - ông /ʔəwŋ͡m˧˧/ — ô before ng is spoken [əw], and the lips close at the end, as in không (Lesson 15).- ảnh /ʔajŋ˧˩/ and hắn /han˧˦/ — ảnh is anh with the dipping tone. Hắn begins with [h], as in English "hat", and ắ is a short [a]. - cậu /kəw˧˨ʔ/ — ậ is a short [ə]; the heavy tone is short and low, with a glottal catch. - bác /ʔɓaːk˧˦/, bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ and bố /ʔɓo˧˦/ — b is an implosive [ʔɓ]. - sĩ /si˧˥/ and kỹ /ki˧˥/ — the broken rising tone, with the tilde. - giỏi /zɔj˧˩/ and gì /zi˨˩/ — gi is [z] in Hanoi. - họ /hɔ˧˨ʔ/ and hơn /həːn˧˧/ — h is [h]; ơ is a long [əː], the vowel of English "fur" without the r. - Hải Phòng /haːj˧˩ fawŋ͡m˨˩/ — ph is [f]. The name is of a northern port city. - nghề /ŋe˨˩/ — ngh is [ŋ], the "ng" of "singer" at the start of a word. - chửi /t͡ɕɨj˧˩/ and vừa /vɨə˨˩/ — ư is [ɨ], a high vowel said with the lips spread.
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16.1a Anh older-brother ấy that đói hungry
16.1b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED đói /ʔɗɔj˧˦/ hungry.STAT
16.2a Anh older-brother ấy that là be bác doc- sĩ -tor
16.2b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED là /laː˨˩/ COP bác /ʔɓaːk˧˦/ doctor(1) sĩ /si˧˥/ doctor(2)
16.3a Tôi I thấy see anh older-brother ấy that
16.3b Tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG thấy /tʰəj˧˦/ see anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.OBJ) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED
16.4a Anh older-brother ấy that ở be-at nhà home
16.4b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED ở /ʔəː˧˩/ be.at nhà /ɲaː˨˩/ house/home
16.5a Anh older-brother ấy that thích like cà coffee- phê -coffee
16.5b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED thích /tʰik˧˦/ like cà /kaː˨˩/ coffee(1) phê /fe˧˧/ coffee(2)
16.6a Hôm day nay this anh older-brother ấy that không not đi go làm work
16.6b Hôm /hom˧˧/ day nay /naj˧˧/ this.present anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED không /xəwŋ͡m˧˧/ NEG đi /ʔɗi˧˧/ go làm /laːm˨˩/ work
16.7a Chị older-sister gái female anh older-brother ấy that tên name là be Hoa Hoa
16.7b Chị /t͡ɕi˧˨ʔ/ older.sister gái /ɣaːj˧˦/ female anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.POSS) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED tên /ten˧˧/ name là /laː˨˩/ COP Hoa /hwaː˧˧/ Hoa.NAME
16.8a Quyển volume sách book của of anh older-brother ấy that ở be-at trên on bàn table
16.8b Quyển /kwiən˧˩/ CL.volume sách /sajk˧˦/ book của /kuə˧˩/ of.POSS anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.POSS) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED ở /ʔəː˧˩/ be.at trên /t͡ɕen˧˧/ on/above bàn /ʔɓaːn˨˩/ table
16.9a Hôm day qua past tôi I gặp meet anh older-brother ấy that
16.9b Hôm /hom˧˧/ day qua /kwaː˧˧/ pass.PAST tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG gặp /ɣap˧˨ʔ/ meet anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.OBJ) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED
16.10a Anh older-brother ấy that nói say rằng that anh older-brother ấy that sẽ will đến come
16.10b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED nói /nɔj˧˦/ say rằng /zaŋ˨˩/ COMP anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED sẽ /sɛ˧˥/ FUT đến /ʔɗen˧˦/ come/arrive
16.11a Mẹ mother cho give anh older-brother ấy that một one ly glass cà coffee- phê -coffee
16.11b Mẹ /mɛ˧˨ʔ/ mother cho /t͡ɕɔ˧˧/ give anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.DAT) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED một /mot˧˨ʔ/ one ly /li˧˧/ CL.glass cà /kaː˨˩/ coffee(1) phê /fe˧˧/ coffee(2)
16.12a Nếu if anh older-brother ấy that đến, come tôi I sẽ will nói say với to anh older-brother ấy that
16.12b Nếu /new˧˦/ if.COND anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED đến /ʔɗen˧˦/ come/arrive tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG sẽ /sɛ˧˥/ FUT nói /nɔj˧˦/ say với /vəːj˧˦/ with/to anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.OBJ) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED
16.13a Ông grandfather ấy that là be người person rất very tốt, good ai who cũng also thích like ông grandfather ấy that
16.13b Ông /ʔəwŋ͡m˧˧/ grandfather(3SG.RESP) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED là /laː˨˩/ COP người /ŋɨəj˨˩/ CL.person rất /zət˧˦/ very.INTENS tốt /tot˧˦/ good ai /ʔaːj˧˧/ everyone cũng /kuŋ͡m˧˥/ also thích /tʰik˧˦/ like ông /ʔəwŋ͡m˧˧/ grandfather(3SG.RESP.OBJ) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED
16.14a Tôi I không not hiểu understand anh older-brother ấy that nói say gì, what vì because anh older-brother ấy that nói speak rất very nhanh fast
16.14b Tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG không /xəwŋ͡m˧˧/ NEG hiểu /hiəw˧˩/ understand anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED nói /nɔj˧˦/ say gì /zi˨˩/ what.Q vì /vi˨˩/ because anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED nói /nɔj˧˦/ speak rất /zət˧˦/ very.INTENS nhanh /ɲajŋ˧˧/ fast
16.15a Ảnh he đi go làm work rồi already
16.15b Ảnh /ʔajŋ˧˩/ 3SG.M(SOUTH) đi /ʔɗi˧˧/ go làm /laːm˨˩/ work rồi /zoj˨˩/ PFV
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Provenance. The pronoun forms of this lesson are checked against English Wiktionary (anh ấy, ấy, ông ấy, anh, hắn, ảnh), the Vietnamese Wiktionary (ấy), the Wikipedia article on Vietnamese pronouns and a learner's guide to Vietnamese pronouns (Preply). 16.15 uses the Southern ảnh, which English Wiktionary gives as "he" for a man of equal or slightly greater status. Every sentence of the lesson (16.1 to 16.30) is made for the lesson from verified words and patterns, many of them met earlier in the course (Tôi tin rằng anh ấy …, 13.11; Tôi có biết anh ấy, 11.14; Hôm nay tôi không đi làm, 15.7; ai cũng …, 15.26). None of these is a quotation. The authentic text of this lesson is Section F.
16.1 Anh ấy đói. → "He is hungry."
16.2 Anh ấy là bác sĩ. → "He is a doctor."
16.3 Tôi thấy anh ấy. → "I see him."
16.4 Anh ấy ở nhà. → "He is at home."
16.5 Anh ấy thích cà phê. → "He likes coffee."
16.6 Hôm nay anh ấy không đi làm. → "Today he is not going to work."
16.7 Chị gái anh ấy tên là Hoa. → "His older sister is called Hoa."
16.8 Quyển sách của anh ấy ở trên bàn. → "His book is on the table."
16.9 Hôm qua tôi gặp anh ấy. → "Yesterday I met him."
16.10 Anh ấy nói rằng anh ấy sẽ đến. → "He says that he will come." (the second "he" may be the same man or another)
16.11 Mẹ cho anh ấy một ly cà phê. → "Mother gives him a cup of coffee."
16.12 Nếu anh ấy đến, tôi sẽ nói với anh ấy. → "If he comes, I will tell him."
16.13 Ông ấy là người rất tốt, ai cũng thích ông ấy. → "He is a very good man; everyone likes him." (of an older man)
16.14 Tôi không hiểu anh ấy nói gì, vì anh ấy nói rất nhanh. → "I do not understand what he says, because he speaks very fast."
16.15 Ảnh đi làm rồi. → "He has already gone to work." (Southern)
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16.1 Anh ấy đói.
16.2 Anh ấy là bác sĩ.
16.3 Tôi thấy anh ấy.
16.4 Anh ấy ở nhà.
16.5 Anh ấy thích cà phê.
16.6 Hôm nay anh ấy không đi làm.
16.7 Chị gái anh ấy tên là Hoa.
16.8 Quyển sách của anh ấy ở trên bàn.
16.9 Hôm qua tôi gặp anh ấy.
16.10 Anh ấy nói rằng anh ấy sẽ đến.
16.11 Mẹ cho anh ấy một ly cà phê.
16.12 Nếu anh ấy đến, tôi sẽ nói với anh ấy.
16.13 Ông ấy là người rất tốt, ai cũng thích ông ấy.
16.14 Tôi không hiểu anh ấy nói gì, vì anh ấy nói rất nhanh.
16.15 Ảnh đi làm rồi.
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These are the grammar rules for anh ấy in Vietnamese:
1. "He" = a word for a person + ấy. Ấy is the determiner "that" (English Wiktionary: chiefly Northern), and the Vietnamese Wiktionary defines it as the word for something already mentioned and known but not present: quyển sách ấy "that book". Put after a word for a person, it points back at that person: anh ấy "that older brother", ông ấy "that gentleman", and so "he". The pair is the nearest thing Vietnamese has to a plain "he", and it works in the same way for the feminine forms of Lesson 15 (chị ấy, 15.11) and Lesson 14 (bà ấy, 14.16).
2. Which first word: speak of him as you would speak to him. The choice follows the speaker's relation to the man. - anh ấy — a man of the speaker's age or a little older (16.1 to 16.12, 16.14, 16.18 to 16.23, 16.28 to 16.30). English Wiktionary: "a man of equal or slightly greater social status". - ông ấy — an older or respected man (16.13). English Wiktionary: "older or respected man". - bác ấy — a man of one's parents' generation, whom one would call bác (16.24). This is the pattern of Section D, rule 1 applied to bác (Lesson 15, Section E); the dictionaries consulted do not list this compound separately. - cậu ấy — a boy or young man whom one would call cậu; the Preply guide says that its use depends on age and context. - bạn ấy — a friend or classmate of one's own age, whom one would call bạn (Lesson 10, rule 9). - em ấy — a younger person whom one would call em (16.26, 16.27). Lesson 10 gave it as the warmer and more careful word for a young person.
When in doubt, the learner uses anh ấy for a man who is not obviously old, and ông ấy for one who is. A mistake towards respect is a smaller mistake than one the other way.
3. One form for every job. As with tôi (Lesson 8) and nó (Lesson 10), the phrase does not change: - Subject, before the verb: Anh ấy đói. (16.1), Anh ấy là bác sĩ. (16.2) - Object, after the verb: Tôi thấy anh ấy. (16.3), Hôm qua tôi gặp anh ấy. (16.9). After cho and với it is the one who receives or is addressed: Mẹ cho anh ấy một ly cà phê. (16.11), tôi sẽ nói với anh ấy (16.12). - Owner, after the noun: chị gái anh ấy "his older sister" (16.7). With của, the owner follows it: quyển sách của anh ấy "his book" (16.8). The longer form is the one that the dictionaries give; của is often left out between persons in the family, as in chị gái anh ấy.
4. The pair is not split, and the first word alone is not "he". Nothing stands between anh and ấy: Anh ấy đói and not ~~Anh đói ấy~~. The bare anh is "older brother" or the pronoun "you" (to a man a little older) or "I" (of an older man to a younger person), as in Lessons 8 and 9. English Wiktionary adds that anh can mean "he" in literary writing, of a young man; in speech the learner should not expect it. Likewise the bare ấy is not "he": in the North it can be a humorous "you, my buddy" (English Wiktionary), and the Vietnamese Wiktionary gives it as a familiar word for a friend who is younger: Ấy tên là gì? "What is your name?" Say the pair.
5. Repeat the pronoun, use the name, or say nothing. Vietnamese does not change the pronoun when the man changes. Anh ấy nói rằng anh ấy sẽ đến. (16.10) is "He says that he will come", and the two anh ấy may be one man or two, as in English. When it matters, Vietnamese uses the name: Anh Sơn nói rằng anh Sơn sẽ đến is clear, though it is heavier. When the man is plain from the situation, the pronoun is often left out, especially in a reply: asked Anh ấy làm nghề gì? (16.20), the speaker can answer with Làm kỹ sư (16.21 has the pronoun, and is also correct).
6. Not for one's own parents. A son or daughter speaking of the family uses the word for the relation: Bố mình hay về muộn (16.25), and the second time simply bố. To say ~~ông ấy~~ of one's own father would sound distant. The pronoun with ấy is for a man whom one does not call by a family word of one's own.
7. The Southern contractions. In the South anh ấy is said as one syllable, ảnh: Ảnh đi làm rồi. (16.15). English Wiktionary describes it as colloquial Southern (and of some Thanh Hóa speech) for a man of equal or slightly greater status. It forms ông ấy as ổng in the same way, and Lesson 10 gave chỉ (chị ấy) and bả (bà ấy). All are the respectful forms, shortened. The word ảnh has a second life: in the North it means "photograph". A learner who hears ảnh in Hanoi hears the photograph, and in Saigon, the man.
8. Other words for "he", and what they carry. - nó — "he" of a child or an animal, or of an adult one scorns (Lesson 10). Between family members it is affectionate: Nam says nó of his small brother (16.27). - hắn — a pronoun of the dictionary and of fiction. English Wiktionary marks it archaic or derogatory in the North and the South, familiar in the Centre, and gives the Central sentence Đi kêu hắn về cho tau! "Go get him back here!" The Preply guide says that it is "somewhat negative" and implies distance or disapproval. It is the "he" of Section F. - y — a third-person pronoun that the Wikipedia article on Vietnamese pronouns lists beside nó and hắn; the learner will meet it in reading, and should not use it. - người ấy — "that person", formal and neutral (Preply). It is the nearest to a "he" that does not say anything about the man's age or rank.
9. The plural. "They", of people, is họ: Họ thích cà phê "They like coffee". For two named men, say both: anh Sơn và anh Nam. The plural marker các goes before a noun and not before anh ấy. For children, animals and things the plural is chúng nó (Lesson 10).
10. Naming the man by what he does: người + verb. Vietnamese has no "who" or "that" between a noun and its clause. Người ngồi cạnh bố bạn (16.18) is "the person who sits next to your father": người "person", then the verb phrase. The question is … là ai? "… is who?" The answer repeats the pattern of Lesson 10: Đó là anh Sơn (16.19), "That is Sơn". Anh ấy is then the pronoun for him in every later sentence.
11. Two small words of the dialogue. Hay before a verb is "often": Bố mình hay về muộn (16.25). Nhỉ at the end of a sentence is "isn't it?", a soft tag that asks the listener to agree: Hôm nay bác ấy về sớm nhỉ? (16.24).
- Using the bare anh for "he". ~~Anh thích cà phê~~ means "You like coffee" or "I like coffee" (said by a man), and not "He likes coffee". Say Anh ấy thích cà phê. (16.5) - Using nó for an adult man. ~~Nó là bác sĩ~~ is dismissive or rude. Say Anh ấy là bác sĩ. (16.2) Nó is for a child, an animal, or a thing (Lesson 10). - Using hắn in everyday talk. Hắn is for reading, and a speaker who uses it of a man is showing contempt or distance. Say anh ấy or ông ấy. - Choosing by the man's rank in the world, and not by one's own relation to him. The same man is anh ấy to one speaker and bác ấy to another. The first word is the one the speaker would call him by. - Using ông ấy for a friend. Ông ấy makes a friend of one's own age sound like a grandfather. Say anh ấy or bạn ấy. - Using ông ấy for one's own father. Say bố mình (16.25), or bố the second time. - Splitting the pair. ~~Anh rất ấy~~ and ~~Anh đói ấy~~ are wrong. Anh ấy is a block. - Leaving out the owner's của after a noun that needs it. Quyển sách của anh ấy (16.8) is the safe form for "his book". ~~Quyển sách anh ấy~~ can be read as "the book he …". - Mixing up the tones. anh (older brother) is not ảnh (photograph, or "he" in the South) or ánh (ray of light). ấy (that) is not đấy or này (this). - Mixing up hắn, hẳn and hạn. Hắn (he) has the rising tone; hẳn (certainly, as in hẳn là) has the dipping tone; hạn (deadline; drought) has the heavy tone.
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Frequency and register. "He" is rank 16 in the vocabulary list that this course follows. Anh ấy is neutral and polite, and it is the form a learner meets most often in speech and writing in the North, in conversation, in messages and in the news. English Wiktionary marks it as Northern. In the South the same speaker says ảnh, and the reader of a Southern novel should expect ổng, chỉ and bả too.
Why a "he" must be chosen. In Vietnamese every person who is spoken of stands in some relation to the speaker: older or younger, of the family or not, to be honoured or not. The speaker's word for "you" and the word for "he" come from the same list, and a man who is anh to your face is anh ấy behind his back. A Vietnamese speaker often asks a new acquaintance's age early on, so that the right words can be chosen. This is not rudeness. A learner who finds it odd to be asked "How old are you?" in the first minutes has met the same system as the word anh ấy in a different place.
Kin before age. The word is chosen by the family tree as well as by age. English Wiktionary's entry for anh gives an example in which a child protests at calling Tuấn anh when he is ten years younger, and is told that Tuấn's mother is the older sister of the child's mother, so that Tuấn is anh to the child: seniority in the family, and not the years alone, decides the word. In the lesson, anh Sơn is Nam's anh họ, his older male cousin; Nam says anh to him and Anna, who is not related, says anh because he is a little older than she is.
The photograph and the man. The Southern ảnh "he" is the same spelling as the northern word ảnh "photograph" (English Wiktionary gives the second from Sino-Vietnamese 影, "shadow, image"). The two are not related in meaning, and a speaker of the North and a speaker of the South may be talking at cross-purposes about a man and a picture.
Nó in the family. Nam says nó of his ten-year-old brother (16.27), as in Lesson 10. A parent, an older brother or a neighbour may use it of a child with affection. A stranger who uses it of someone else's child is a little rough, and em ấy (16.26) is the safe word.
Hải Phòng. The city in which Sơn lives, Hải Phòng, is a port in the north of Vietnam. In the messages Anna is invited there, and in the last lines (16.29, 16.30) Nam says that Sơn will meet her at the station, ga. To meet a guest at the station, đón bạn ở ga, is an ordinary courtesy.
Hắn in the novel. The citation of Section F is the opening of a famous short story in which hắn is the narrator's own word for the main character. The pronoun is not neutral there. It keeps the man at a distance, and the story is about his being kept at a distance by everyone.
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The first two sentences of Chí Phèo by Nam Cao (1917–1951), a short story first published in 1941. The Vietnamese Wikisource page (vi.wikisource.org, "Chí Phèo") gives its first release in the magazine Đời Mới in 1941, under the title Đôi lứa xứng đôi ("A Well-Matched Couple"), and prints the opening as three sentences, the third being Bắt đầu hắn chửi giời. A VnExpress article on the character prints the same opening. This lesson takes the first two, which are a complete thought. The page is a modern edition, spelt as Vietnamese is spelt today; the 1941 manuscript was not seen.
> Hắn vừa đi vừa chửi. Bao giờ cũng thế, cứ rượu xong là hắn chửi.
F.1a Hắn he vừa both đi walk vừa and chửi curse
F.1b Hắn /han˧˦/ 3SG.DISTAL vừa /vɨə˨˩/ at.once(1) đi /ʔɗi˧˧/ go/walk vừa /vɨə˨˩/ at.once(2) chửi /t͡ɕɨj˧˩/ curse
F.2a Bao how- giờ -time cũng also thế so cứ each-time rượu liquor xong finish là then hắn he chửi curse
F.2b Bao /ʔɓaːw˧˧/ when(1) giờ /zəː˨˩/ when(2) cũng /kuŋ͡m˧˥/ also thế /tʰe˧˦/ so/thus cứ /kɨ˧˦/ each.time rượu /zɨəw˧˨ʔ/ liquor xong /sawŋ͡m˧˧/ finish.COMPL là /laː˨˩/ then hắn /han˧˦/ 3SG.DISTAL chửi /t͡ɕɨj˧˩/ curse
Hắn vừa đi vừa chửi. Bao giờ cũng thế, cứ rượu xong là hắn chửi.
"He walked along cursing. It was always so: each time the drinking was done, he cursed."
Hắn vừa đi vừa chửi. Bao giờ cũng thế, cứ rượu xong là hắn chửi.
Hắn: the narrator's "he". The story opens with a pronoun and no name. The reader meets the man as hắn, the word of Section D, rule 8: familiar, distant, not respectful. The narrator could have said anh ấy, and the sentence would have been polite, as of a neighbour. Hắn says that the man is not to be honoured, and the word is repeated in the second sentence. English "he" has no such choice, and the translation cannot carry it.
Vừa … vừa …. Vừa đi vừa chửi is "while walking, cursing": two actions at the same moment, each with its own vừa, "at once". The two verbs are in the same order as the English, and there is no "and" or "while". A learner can use the pattern at once: vừa ăn vừa nói "to eat and talk".
Bao giờ cũng thế. Bao giờ is "when" in a question (Bao giờ bạn đến?), and with cũng "also" it means "whenever, always": bao giờ cũng thế is literally "when also so", and so "it is always so". The sentence has no subject: like the weather of Lesson 10, it needs no "it".
Cứ … là …. Cứ is "each time, whenever" and là is "then": cứ rượu xong là hắn chửi is "each time the drink is finished, then he curses". The condition is a bare noun and a verb, rượu xong, "liquor finished", with no "when" and no subject. Xong is the "finished" of Lesson 15 (làm xong).
The text. The Wikisource page and the VnExpress article agree in every word of these two sentences. The third sentence of the opening (Bắt đầu hắn chửi giời) is left out here. The citation is from a modern web edition and has not been checked against the 1941 printing.
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The evening of the birthday of Nam's mother, after the morning in her kitchen (Lesson 15). Anna is back in her room and writes to Nam on her phone. At the birthday meal she met Nam's cousin, Sơn, and she wants to know about him.
16.16a Cảm feel- ơn -grateful bạn. you Hôm day nay this vui fun lắm! very
16.16b Cảm /kaːm˧˩/ thank(1) ơn /ʔəːn˧˧/ thank(2) bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(OBJ) Hôm /hom˧˧/ day nay /naj˧˧/ this.present vui /vuj˧˧/ cheerful/fun lắm /lam˧˦/ very.INTENS
16.17a Mình I cũng also vui. fun Mẹ mother mình I rất very thích like bạn. you
16.17b Mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM cũng /kuŋ͡m˧˥/ also vui /vuj˧˧/ cheerful/fun Mẹ /mɛ˧˨ʔ/ mother mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM(POSS) rất /zət˧˦/ very.INTENS thích /tʰik˧˦/ like bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(OBJ)
16.18a Người person ngồi sit cạnh beside bố father bạn you là be ai? who Anh older-brother ấy that nói speak tiếng language Anh England rất very giỏi. good-at
16.18b Người /ŋɨəj˨˩/ CL.person ngồi /ŋoj˨˩/ sit cạnh /kajŋ˧˨ʔ/ beside bố /ʔɓo˧˦/ father bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(POSS) là /laː˨˩/ COP ai /ʔaːj˧˧/ who.Q Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED nói /nɔj˧˦/ speak tiếng /tiəŋ˧˦/ language Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ England rất /zət˧˦/ very.INTENS giỏi /zɔj˧˩/ skilled
16.19a Đó that là be anh older-brother Sơn, Sơn anh older-brother họ cousin của of mình. I Anh older-brother ấy that ở be-at Hải Hải- Phòng. -Phòng
16.19b Đó /ʔɗɔ˧˦/ DEM.DIST là /laː˨˩/ COP anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(TITLE) Sơn /səːn˧˧/ Sơn.NAME anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(1) họ /hɔ˧˨ʔ/ kin(2) của /kuə˧˩/ of.POSS mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM(POSS) Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED ở /ʔəː˧˩/ be.at Hải /haːj˧˩/ Hải.Phòng(1) Phòng /fawŋ͡m˨˩/ Hải.Phòng(2)
16.20a Anh older-brother ấy that làm do nghề trade gì? what
16.20b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED làm /laːm˨˩/ do/work.as nghề /ŋe˨˩/ profession gì /zi˨˩/ what.Q
16.21a Anh older-brother ấy that làm be kỹ engi- sư. -neer
16.21b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED làm /laːm˨˩/ work.as kỹ /ki˧˥/ engineer(1) sư /sɨ˧˧/ engineer(2)
16.22a Anh older-brother ấy that bao how nhiêu many tuổi? years-old
16.22b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED bao /ʔɓaːw˧˧/ how(much) nhiêu /ɲiəw˧˧/ much/many.Q tuổi /tuəj˧˩/ years.of.age
16.23a Anh older-brother ấy that lớn big hơn more mình I năm five tuổi. years-old
16.23b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED lớn /ləːn˧˦/ big/older hơn /həːn˧˧/ more/than mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM(OBJ) năm /nam˧˧/ five tuổi /tuəj˧˩/ years.of.age
16.24a Hôm day nay this bác elder ấy that về return sớm early nhỉ? isn't-it
16.24b Hôm /hom˧˧/ day nay /naj˧˧/ this.present bác /ʔɓaːk˧˦/ elder(3SG.RESP) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED về /ve˨˩/ return sớm /səːm˧˦/ early nhỉ /ɲi˧˩/ PRT.TAG
16.25a Bố father mình I hay often về return muộn, late nhưng but hôm day nay this bố father về return sớm early vì because sinh birth- nhật -day mẹ. mother
16.25b Bố /ʔɓo˧˦/ father mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM(POSS) hay /haj˧˧/ often về /ve˨˩/ return muộn /muən˧˨ʔ/ late nhưng /ɲɨŋ˧˧/ but hôm /hom˧˧/ day nay /naj˧˧/ this.present bố /ʔɓo˧˦/ father về /ve˨˩/ return sớm /səːm˧˦/ early vì /vi˨˩/ because sinh /siŋ˧˧/ birth(1) nhật /ɲət˧˨ʔ/ birth(2) mẹ /mɛ˧˨ʔ/ mother
16.26a Em younger-sibling trai male bạn you đâu? where Em younger-sibling ấy that ngủ sleep chưa? not-yet
16.26b Em /ʔɛm˧˧/ younger.sibling trai /t͡ɕaːj˧˧/ male bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(POSS) đâu /ʔɗəw˧˧/ where.Q Em /ʔɛm˧˧/ younger.sibling(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED ngủ /ŋu˧˩/ sleep chưa /t͡ɕɨə˧˧/ yet.Q
16.27a Em younger-sibling ấy that ngủ sleep rồi. already Hôm day nay this nó he chơi play cả whole ngày. day
16.27b Em /ʔɛm˧˧/ younger.sibling(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED ngủ /ŋu˧˩/ sleep rồi /zoj˨˩/ PFV Hôm /hom˧˧/ day nay /naj˧˧/ this.present nó /nɔ˧˦/ 3SG.FAM chơi /t͡ɕəːj˧˧/ play cả /kaː˧˩/ whole ngày /ŋaj˨˩/ day
16.28a Anh older-brother Sơn Sơn mời invite tôi I đến to Hải Hải- Phòng -Phòng chơi. play Tôi I nên should đi go không? or-not
16.28b Anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(TITLE) Sơn /səːn˧˧/ Sơn.NAME mời /məːj˨˩/ invite tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG(OBJ) đến /ʔɗen˧˦/ come.to Hải /haːj˧˩/ Hải.Phòng(1) Phòng /fawŋ͡m˨˩/ Hải.Phòng(2) chơi /t͡ɕəːj˧˧/ visit/play Tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG nên /nen˧˧/ should đi /ʔɗi˧˧/ go không /xəwŋ͡m˧˧/ Q.NEG
16.29a Bạn you nên should đi. go Mình I tin believe rằng that anh older-brother ấy that sẽ will đón meet bạn you ở at ga. station
16.29b Bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG nên /nen˧˧/ should đi /ʔɗi˧˧/ go Mình /miŋ˨˩/ 1SG.FAM tin /tin˧˧/ believe rằng /zaŋ˨˩/ COMP anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED sẽ /sɛ˧˥/ FUT đón /ʔɗɔn˧˦/ meet/pick.up bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(OBJ) ở /ʔəː˧˩/ at.LOC ga /ɣaː˧˧/ station
16.30a Cảm feel- ơn -grateful Nam. Nam Ngày day mai tomorrow tôi I sẽ will nhắn message cho to anh older-brother ấy. that Chúc wish bạn you ngủ sleep ngon! tasty
16.30b Cảm /kaːm˧˩/ thank(1) ơn /ʔəːn˧˧/ thank(2) Nam /naːm˧˧/ Nam.NAME Ngày /ŋaj˨˩/ day mai /maːj˧˧/ tomorrow tôi /toj˧˧/ 1SG sẽ /sɛ˧˥/ FUT nhắn /ɲan˧˦/ send.message cho /t͡ɕɔ˧˧/ to.BEN anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ older.brother(3SG.OBJ) ấy /ʔəj˧˦/ DEM.MED Chúc /t͡ɕuk͡p˧˦/ wish bạn /ʔɓaːn˧˨ʔ/ 2SG(OBJ) ngủ /ŋu˧˩/ sleep ngon /ŋɔn˧˧/ tasty/well
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16.16 Anna: Cảm ơn bạn. Hôm nay vui lắm! → "Thank you. Today was great fun!"
16.17 Nam: Mình cũng vui. Mẹ mình rất thích bạn. → "I enjoyed it too. My mother likes you very much."
16.18 Anna: Người ngồi cạnh bố bạn là ai? Anh ấy nói tiếng Anh rất giỏi. → "Who is the man who sat next to your father? He speaks English very well."
16.19 Nam: Đó là anh Sơn, anh họ của mình. Anh ấy ở Hải Phòng. → "That is Sơn, my older cousin. He lives in Hải Phòng."
16.20 Anna: Anh ấy làm nghề gì? → "What does he do for a living?"
16.21 Nam: Anh ấy làm kỹ sư. → "He is an engineer."
16.22 Anna: Anh ấy bao nhiêu tuổi? → "How old is he?"
16.23 Nam: Anh ấy lớn hơn mình năm tuổi. → "He is five years older than I am."
16.24 Anna: Hôm nay bác ấy về sớm nhỉ? → "Your father came home early today, didn't he?"
16.25 Nam: Bố mình hay về muộn, nhưng hôm nay bố về sớm vì sinh nhật mẹ. → "My father often comes home late, but today he came home early because of my mother's birthday."
16.26 Anna: Em trai bạn đâu? Em ấy ngủ chưa? → "Where is your younger brother? Has he gone to sleep yet?"
16.27 Nam: Em ấy ngủ rồi. Hôm nay nó chơi cả ngày. → "He is already asleep. He played all day today."
16.28 Anna: Anh Sơn mời tôi đến Hải Phòng chơi. Tôi nên đi không? → "Sơn has invited me to visit Hải Phòng. Should I go?"
16.29 Nam: Bạn nên đi. Mình tin rằng anh ấy sẽ đón bạn ở ga. → "You should go. I believe that he will meet you at the station."
16.30 Anna: Cảm ơn Nam. Ngày mai tôi sẽ nhắn cho anh ấy. Chúc bạn ngủ ngon! → "Thank you, Nam. Tomorrow I will send him a message. Sleep well!"
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16.16 Anna: Cảm ơn bạn. Hôm nay vui lắm!
16.17 Nam: Mình cũng vui. Mẹ mình rất thích bạn.
16.18 Anna: Người ngồi cạnh bố bạn là ai? Anh ấy nói tiếng Anh rất giỏi.
16.19 Nam: Đó là anh Sơn, anh họ của mình. Anh ấy ở Hải Phòng.
16.20 Anna: Anh ấy làm nghề gì?
16.21 Nam: Anh ấy làm kỹ sư.
16.22 Anna: Anh ấy bao nhiêu tuổi?
16.23 Nam: Anh ấy lớn hơn mình năm tuổi.
16.24 Anna: Hôm nay bác ấy về sớm nhỉ?
16.25 Nam: Bố mình hay về muộn, nhưng hôm nay bố về sớm vì sinh nhật mẹ.
16.26 Anna: Em trai bạn đâu? Em ấy ngủ chưa?
16.27 Nam: Em ấy ngủ rồi. Hôm nay nó chơi cả ngày.
16.28 Anna: Anh Sơn mời tôi đến Hải Phòng chơi. Tôi nên đi không?
16.29 Nam: Bạn nên đi. Mình tin rằng anh ấy sẽ đón bạn ở ga.
16.30 Anna: Cảm ơn Nam. Ngày mai tôi sẽ nhắn cho anh ấy. Chúc bạn ngủ ngon!
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The messages. The exchange has the form of Lesson 10: Anna writes, Nam answers, and each line is a short message. The date is the evening of the birthday of Lesson 15, and the "he" of the lesson is Nam's cousin, whom Anna met at the table and does not yet know.
Thanks and the family. Anna begins (16.16) with Cảm ơn bạn, the thanks of Lesson 15 (15.30), and Hôm nay vui lắm "Today was great fun", with the time first and lắm "very much" last (8.21). Nam answers (16.17) with mình for "I", as friends of the same age do (15.21), and Mẹ mình rất thích bạn "My mother likes you very much": mẹ mình, "mother (of) me", has the owner after the owned.
Who is he? Anna cannot name the man, and so she describes him (16.18): Người ngồi cạnh bố bạn là ai? This is rule 10: người + ngồi cạnh bố bạn, "the person (who) sits next to your father", with cạnh "beside". The question is … là ai?, "… is who?" From the second sentence on, she has her "he": Anh ấy nói tiếng Anh rất giỏi, "He speaks English very well". Giỏi is "good at", and stands after the object. She says anh ấy and not ông ấy because the man looks to her to be a little older than she is, which is rule 2. The word Anh in tiếng Anh is a different word, the name of England, and it is a capital letter in the written form.
He is Sơn. Nam answers (16.19) with the pointing Đó là of Lesson 10, and the name with the kinship word: anh Sơn. Anh họ của mình is "my older cousin": anh họ "male cousin who is older" (English Wiktionary lists "male cousin" among the senses of anh), then của mình "of me". Nam then says Anh ấy ở Hải Phòng, using the pronoun he has just explained: a name once, then anh ấy. Ở + a place says where one lives or is.
Job and age. Anna's next two questions (16.20, 16.22) both have anh ấy as the subject. Anh ấy làm nghề gì? is the question of 15.5 with a pronoun in place of bạn: "What trade does he do?" Nam's reply (16.21), Anh ấy làm kỹ sư, has làm as "be" a role (Lesson 15: làm nghề gì, 15.5). The question of age is bao nhiêu tuổi? (10.20), and the reply (16.23) has lớn hơn mình năm tuổi: lớn "big, grown", hơn "more than", mình the one compared, and năm tuổi the difference, "five years". English "five years older than me" has the same parts in a different order.
The father. Anna's message (16.24) is Hôm nay bác ấy về sớm nhỉ? She uses bác ấy: bác is the word she uses to Nam's mother (15.18), and by extension to his father, and so bác ấy is her "he" for Nam's father (rule 2). Nhỉ is the soft tag of rule 11. Nam does not say ông ấy or bác ấy of his own father (rule 6): he says bố mình the first time and bố the second (16.25), with hay "often" (rule 11) and vì sinh nhật mẹ "because (of) Mother's birthday", where sinh nhật is the "birthday" of 14.16 and the owner follows it.
The brother. For the younger brother (16.26, 16.27) the speakers use em ấy: Em trai bạn đâu? is "Where is your younger brother?" and Em ấy ngủ chưa? is "Has he slept yet?" The question word chưa at the end asks "yet?" and is answered … rồi "already" (16.27). Nam's second sentence has nó (16.27), the familiar word of Lesson 10 that a brother may use of a younger brother: Hôm nay nó chơi cả ngày, "Today he played all day". Cả ngày is "the whole day".
The invitation. In 16.28 the name is used, and not the pronoun, as the man comes into the sentence for the first time as the one who acts: Anh Sơn mời tôi đến Hải Phòng chơi. Mời is "to invite", đến … chơi is "to come to … (and) visit", with chơi here "to spend time, to visit". Tôi nên đi không? is nên "should" with the closing không "or not?". The reply (16.29) repeats nên đi, and says Mình tin rằng anh ấy sẽ đón bạn ở ga: the pattern of 13.11, tin rằng + a clause, then đón bạn "pick you up" (10.19), ở ga "at the station".
Goodbye. Anna's last message (16.30) has Ngày mai "tomorrow", nhắn cho anh ấy "send him a message", with the person after cho (as in 14.16), and the closing wish Chúc bạn ngủ ngon! "Sleep well!" The scene began with a stranger at a table and ends with anh ấy as someone whom Anna will write to.
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The letters of this lesson. Vietnamese adds to the Latin alphabet ă, â, đ, ê, ô, ơ, ư, and marks five of its six tones with à á ả ã ạ. A letter may carry a vowel mark and a tone mark at once: ấy (â + sắc), hắn (ă + sắc), cậu (â + nặng), ông (ô, level), bố (ô + sắc), bác (a + sắc), bạn (a + nặng), ảnh (a + hỏi), đói (o + sắc), giỏi (o + hỏi), tốt (ô + sắc), thấy (â + sắc), ở (ơ + hỏi), mình (i + huyền), nhỉ (i + hỏi), vừa (ư + huyền), chửi (ư + hỏi), cứ (ư + sắc), ngủ (u + hỏi), rượu (ươ + nặng), người (ươ + huyền), thế (ê + sắc), hơn (ơ, level), lớn (ơ + sắc), mời (ơ + huyền), sớm (ơ + sắc), muộn (uô + nặng), tuổi (uô + hỏi), hiểu (iê + hỏi), tiếng (iê + sắc), nghề (ê + huyền), kỹ (y + ngã), sĩ (i + ngã), sẽ (e + ngã), đến (ê + sắc), chúc (u + sắc), nhắn (ă + sắc), cạnh (a + nặng).
Where the tone mark goes. On the main vowel of the syllable. In iê it goes on the ê: tiếng, hiểu, đến. In ươ it goes on the ơ: người, rượu. In uô it goes on the ô: muộn, tuổi. A vowel that already carries a mark (ê, ơ, ô, ư, â, ă) takes the tone mark, which is why ấy has two marks on one letter. In ia, ua, ưa with no final consonant the tone goes on the first vowel: vừa, của, chưa. In oa, oe, uy this course uses the older style, with the mark on the first vowel, as in Lessons 8 and 9.
The spelling of kỹ sư. The word is written kỹ sư in this lesson, with y. The spelling kĩ sư, with i, is also found. Both are read as the same word.
Anh, ảnh, ánh. anh /ʔajŋ˧˧/ (older brother; "he" with ấy), ảnh /ʔajŋ˧˩/ (photograph in the North; "he" in the South) and ánh /ʔajŋ˧˦/ (ray of light) have the same letters and differ in tone alone. The final -nh is [ŋ] with a glide [j] after a: anh [ajŋ], cạnh [ajŋ], nhanh [ajŋ].
The letters ng and ngh; the sounds [z] and [t͡ɕ]. [ŋ] is spelt ng before a, o, ô, u, ư, ơ, â, ă (người, ngày, ngủ, ngon, ngồi) and ngh before e, ê, i (nghề). In the Hanoi standard d, gi and r are all [z]: giỏi, giờ, gì, rất, rồi, rằng, rượu. Ch and tr are both [t͡ɕ]: chửi, chưa, chơi, chị, trai, trên. The spellings are to be learnt with the words.
Final -ng, -c, -p, -t, -n, -m. After o, ô, u the lips close at the end of -ng: không [xəwŋ͡m], ông [ʔəwŋ͡m], cùng [kuŋ͡m], Phòng [fawŋ͡m], cũng [kuŋ͡m]. After ư, ơ, ê, ie they do not: nhưng [ɲɨŋ], tiếng [tiəŋ], mình [miŋ]. After u the lips close at the end of -c, as in chúc [t͡ɕuk͡p]. A heavy tone with a final -c, -p, -t or -n is short and low, with a glottal catch: gặp [ɣap˧˨ʔ], nhật [ɲət˧˨ʔ], muộn [muən˧˨ʔ].
Tone pairs to drill. anh (older brother) / ảnh (photograph; "he" in the South) / ánh (ray of light); hắn (he) / hẳn (certainly) / hạn (deadline; drought) / hàn (to weld; Hàn Quốc, Korea); bác (elder; doctor in bác sĩ) / bắc (north) / bạc (silver); bạn (friend, you) / bàn (table) / bán (to sell); ông (grandfather; Mr) / ống (tube); em (younger sibling) / êm (soft, smooth); mời (to invite) / mới (new; only just); nghề (trade) / nghe (to hear); ngủ (to sleep) / ngu (stupid); chửi (to curse) / chữa (to repair).
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Course Index: [latinum.substack.com/p/index](https://latinum.substack.com/p/index)